Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T23:45:28.480Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Identity and taxonomy within the genus Leishmania

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2011

L. F. Schnur
Affiliation:
Department of Parasitology, Kuvin Centre for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
Get access

Abstract

Identification and taxonomy of the genus Leishmania is considered in brief, drawing on existing review articles. A fully-referenced synopsis of clinical, epidemiological, biological, immunological and biochemical criteria and methods used for typing leishmanial parasites is given and discussed. Classical and modern approaches are compared. Leishmanial phylogeny, the value of numerical taxonomy and the possibility of sexual recombination in leishmanial organisms are also considered.

Résumé

L'dentification et la taxonomie dans le genre Leishmania sont rappelés brievement, pour attirer l'attention sur les revues et les articles existents. Les critères et les méthodes cliniques épidémiologiques, biologiques, immunologiques et biochimiques utilisés pour typer ces parasites sont résumés dans un tableau synoptique et discuté. Les approaches classiques et modernes sont comparées entre elles. La phylogénie des Leishmania, l'utilité de la taxonomie numérique et la possibilité de recombinaison sexualle dans les Leishmania sont également discutées.

Type
Special Section: Leishmaniasis Epidemiology
Copyright
Copyright © ICIPE 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abdalla, R. E. (1982) Parasites in Sudanese cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 76, 299307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adanson, M. (1763) Familles des Plants I. Vincent, Paris.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, S. (1932) Observations on two races of L. tropica. In. The Emanual Libman Anniversary Volumes, pp. 16. International Press, New York.Google Scholar
Adler, S. (1962) The behaviour of a lizard leishmania in hamsters and baby mice. Rev. Inst. Med. trop. Sāo Paulo 4, 6164.Google ScholarPubMed
Adler, S. (1964) Leishmania. Adv. Parasit. 2, 3596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, S. and Gunders, A. (1964) Immunity to leishmania mexicana following spontaneous recovery from oriental sore. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 58, 274277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adler, S. and Theodor, O. (1926) The identity of Leishmania tropica Wright, 1903 and Herpetomonas papatasii Adler, 1925. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 20, 355364.Google Scholar
Afchain, D., Le Ray, D., Capron, A. and Jadin, J. (1973) Analyse antigénique comparée, par immunoélectrophorèse, des formes de culture de Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi, Trypanosoma (Trypanoozoon) brucei et Leishmania donovani. Conséquences taxonomiques et diagnostiques. Protistologica 9, 213220.Google Scholar
Arnot, D. E. and Barker, D. C. (1981) Biochemical identification of cutaneous leishmanias by analysis of kinetoplast DNA. II. Sequence homologies in Leishmania kDNA. Mol. Biochem. Parasit. 3, 4756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, D. C. and Arnot, D. E. (1981) Biochemical identification of cutaneous leishmanias by analysis of kinetoplast DNA. I. Ultrastructural'and buoyant density analysis. Mol. Biochem. Parasit. 3, 3346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, D. C., Arnot, D. E. and Butcher, J. (1982) DNA characterization as a taxonomic tool for identification of kinetoplastic flagellate protozoons. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 139180. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Barker, D. C., and Butcher, J. (1983) The use of DNA probes in the identification of leishmanias: discrimination between isolates of Leishmania mexicana and L. braziliensis complexes. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 77, 285297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beach, R. and Mebrahtu, Y. (1985) Rapid enzymological identification of leishmanial isolates in Kenya. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 79, 445447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belazzoug, S. (1982) Isoenzyme characterization of Leishmania spp. from Algeria. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania. (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 99104. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Bray, R. S. (1974) Leishmania. A. Rev. Microbiol. 28, 189217.Google Scholar
Bray, R. S., Ashford, R. W. and Bray, M. A. (1973) The parasite causing cutaneous leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 67, 345347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bray, R. S. and Bryceson, A. D. M. (1969) Studies on the immunology and serology of leishmaniasis. VIII. The identity of strains of Leishmania from Ethiopian diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 63, 524527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, R. S. and Rahim, G. A. F. (1969) Studies on the immunology and serology of leishmaniasis. VII. Serotypes of Leishmania tropica. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 63, 383387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chance, M. L. (1976) DNA relationships in the genus Leishmania. In Biochemistry of Parasites and Host-Parasite Relationships (Edited by Van den Bossche, H.), pp. 229235. Elsevier/North-Holland Biomédical Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Chance, M. L. (1979) The identification of Leishmania. In Problems in the Identification of Parasites and Their Vectors (Edited by Taylor, A. E. R. and Muller, R.), pp. 5574. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.Google Scholar
Chance, M. L. (1984) Experimental studies of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Recent Advances in Tropical Medicine (Edited by Gilles, H. M.), pp. 102113. Churchill Livingstone, London.Google Scholar
Chance, M. L., Gardener, P. J. and Peters, W. (1977) Biochemical taxonomy of Leishmania as an ecological tool. Colloques Internationaux du C.N.R.S., No. 239, Ecologie des Leishmanioses, pp. 5362.Google Scholar
Chance, M. L., Peters, W. and Shchory, L. (1974) Biochemical taxonomy of Leishmania I: Observations on DNA. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 68, 307316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chance, M. L., Schnur, L. F., Thomas, S. L. and Peters, W. (1978) The biological and serological taxonomy of Leishmania from the Aethiopian zoogeographical region of Africa. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 72, 533542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C. (1982) Biochemical characterization of Leishmania. UNDP/World Bank/Who Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Croft, S. L. and Schnur, L. F. (1979) The Noguchi-Adler phenomenon: an ultrastructural study of the effect of homologous antisera on the growth of promastigotes of Leishmania braziliensis braziliensis and L. hertigi hertigi. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 73, 536546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decker-Jackson, J. E., Schrot, J. and Levin, G. V. (1977) Identification of Leishmania spp. by radiorespirometry. J. Protozool. 24, 463470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Decker-Jackson, J. E. and Tang, D. B. (1982) Identification of Leishmania spp. by radiorespirometry II: A statistical method of data analysis to evaluate the reproducibility and sensitivity of the technique. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 205245. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Dedet, J.-P. (1977) Les leishmanioses en Afrique du Nord. Bull. Inst. Past. 77, 4982.Google Scholar
Divon-Rozytcka, C. (1963) A serological comparison between three strains of Leishmania, L. tropica, L. tropica major and L. tropica minor. M.Sc thesis, Hebrew University, Jerusalem.Google Scholar
Ebert, F. (1973) Charakterisierung von Leishmania donovani-Stämmen mit der Disk-Elektrophoorese. Z. Tropenmed. Parasit. 24, 517524.Google Scholar
Ebert, F. (1974a) Elektrophoretische Untersuchungen an Leishmania tropica Stämmen. Z. Tropenmed. Parasit. 25, 4953.Google Scholar
Ebert, F. (1974b) Verleichende elektrophoretische Untersuchungen an Erreger-Stämmen der cutanen Leish-maniase der Neuen Welt und ihre Beziehungen zu Leishmania donovani und L. tropica. Z. Tropenmed. Parasit. 25, 259266.Google Scholar
Elbihari, S., Kawasmeh, Z. A. and Al Naiem, A. M. (1984) Possible reservoir host(s) of zoonotic cutaneous leish-maniasis in Al-Hassa oasis, Saudi Arabia. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 78, 543545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fish, W. R., Holz, G. G. Jr, Beach, D. H., Owen, E. and Anekwe, G. E. (1981) The cyclopropane fatty acid of trypanosomatids. Mol. Biochem. Parasit. 3, 103115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardener, P. J. (1977) Taxonomy of the genus Leishmania: A review of nomenclature and classification. Trop. Dis. Bull. 74, 10691088.Google Scholar
Gardener, P. J., Chance, M. L. and Peters, W. (1974) Biochemical taxonomy of leishmania II: Electrophoretic variation of malate dehydrogenase. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 68, 317325.Google ScholarPubMed
Gardener, P. J., Shchory, L. and Chance, M. L. (1977) Species differentiation in the genus Leishmania by morphometric studies with the electron microscope. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 71, 147155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfrey, D. G. (1984) Molecular biochemical characterisation of human parasites. In Recent Advances in Tropical Medicine (Edited by Gilles, H. M.), pp. 289319. Churchill Livingston, London.Google Scholar
Greenblatt, C. L., Slutzky, G. M., de Ibarra, A. and Snary, D. (1983) Monoclonal antibodies for the serotyping of Leishmania strains. J. clin. Microbiol. 18, 191193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gueugnot, J., Guillot, M., Damez, M. and Coulet, M. (1984) Identification and taxonomy of human and animal leishmanias by lectin-mediated agglutination. Ada trop. 41, 135143.Google ScholarPubMed
Handman, E., Hocking, R. E., Mitchell, G. F. and Spithill, T. W. (1983) Isolation and characterization of infective and non-infective clones of Leishmania tropica. Mol. Biochem. Parasit. 7, 111126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, H. (1980) The Principles of Human Biochemical Genetics, 3rd edn.Elsevier/North Holland Biomédical Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Heisch, R. B. (1958) On Leishmania adleri sp. nov. from lacertid lizards (Latastia sp.) in Kenya. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 52, 6871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hernandez, A. G. (1982) Lectins as a tool in parasite research. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 181196. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Hill, L. R. (1984) Numerical taxomomy: general principles and problems of application. In New Approaches to the Identification of Parasites and Their Vectors, Tropical Diseases Research Series Vol. 5 (Edited by Newton, B. M. and Michal, F.), pp. 3549. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Holz, G. G. Jr and Beach, D. H. (1982) Catagorization of Old World leishmaniasis by cyclopropane fatty acid content of cultured promastigotes. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 197203. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Hommel, M. (1978) The genus Leishmania: Biology of the parasites and clinical aspects. Bull. Inst. Past. 75, 5102.Google Scholar
Jackson, P., Wohlieter, J. A., Jackson, J. E., Sayles, P., Diggs, C. L. and Hockmeyer, W. T. (1984) Restriction endonuclease analysis of Leishmania kinetoplast DNA characterizes parasites responsible for visceral and cutaneous disease. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 33, 808819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson, R. L., Slutzky, G. M., Greenblatt, C. L. and Schnur, L. F. (1982) Surface reaction of Leishmania I. Lectin-mediated agglutination. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 76, 4552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffe, C. L. and McMahon-Pratt, D. (1983) Monoclonal antibodies specific for Leishmania tropica I. Characterization of antigens associated with stage- and species-specific determinants. J. Immun, 131, 19871993.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenni, L., Marti, S. and Betschart, B. (1984) Simultaneous cyclical transmission of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei brucei. In Abstracts of the Fourth European Multicolloquium of Parasitology (Izmir), p. 97.Google Scholar
Jenni, L., Marti, S., Schweizer, J. and Betschart, B. (1985) Formation of hybrid Trypanosoma (T.) brucei in Glossina. In Abstracts of the Seventh International Congress of Protozoology (Nairobi), p. 139.Google Scholar
Kellina, O. I. (1962) On the dimensions of Leishmania Tropica major and Leishmania tropica minor. Medskaya Parazit. 31, 716718.Google ScholarPubMed
Kirk, R. (1949) The differentiation and nomenclature of Leishmania. Parasitology 39, 263273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kligler, I. J. (1925) The culture and serological relationships of Leishmania. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 19, 330335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohanteb, J., Ardehali, S. and Rezai, H. R. (1980) Studies on antigenic relationships of Leishmania promastigotes by electroimmunodiffusion and crossed electroimmuno-diffusion tests. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 74, 582584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozhevnikov, P. V. (1963) Two nosological forms of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 12, 719724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreutzer, R. D. (1982) The cellulose acetate electrophoresis method for isozyme characterization of Leishmania isolates. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 8185. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Kreutzer, R. D. and Christensen, H. A. (1980) Characterization of Leishmania spp. by isoenzyme electrophoresis. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 29, 199208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreutzer, R. D. and Souraty, N. (1984) Accurate identification of Leishmania isolates by study of three enzymes. In Abstracts of the 33rd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Lainson, R. and Bray, R. S. (1966) Studies on the immunology and serology of leishmaniasis. II. Cross-immunity experiments among different forms of American cutaneous leishmaniasis in monkeys. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 60, 526532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lainson, R. and Shaw, J. J. (1966) Studies on the immunology and serology of leishmaniasis. III. On the cross-immunity between Panamanian cutaneous leishmaniasis and Leishmania mexicana infection in man. Trans R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 60, 533535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lainson, R. and Shaw, J. J. (1970) Leishmaniasis in Brazil. V. Studies on the epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Mato Grosso State, and observations on two distinct strains of Leishmania isolated from man and forest animals. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 64, 654667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lainson, R. and Shaw, J. J. (1979) The role of animals in the epidemiology of South American leishmaniasis. In Biology of the Kinetoplastida, Vol. 2 (Edited by Lumsden, W. H. R. and Evans, D. A.), pp. 1116. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Lanham, S. M. (1982) Kits for isoenzyme characterization of Leishmania isolates in the field. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 8798. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Lanham, S. M., Grendon, J. M., Miles, M. A., Povoa, M. M. and Almeida de Souza, A. A. (1981) A comparison of electrophoretic methods for isoenzyme characterization of trypanosomatids. I: Standard stocks of Trypanosoma cruzi zymodemes from northeast Brazil. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 75, 742750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lanotte, G., Rioux, J. A., Maazoun, R., Pasteur, N., Pratlong, F. and Lepart, J. (1981) Application de la méthode numérique à la taxonomie du genre Leishmania Ross, 1903. A propos de 146 souches originaires de l'Ancine Monde. Utilisation des allozymes. Corollaires épidémiologiques et phyletiques. Annls Parasit. hum. comp. 56, 576592.Google Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M., Belehu, A. and Peters, W. (1986a) Leishmania in the Old World: 3. The distribution of L. aethiopica zymodemes. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. In press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M., Schnur, L. F. and Peters, W. (1986b) Leishmania in the Old World: I. The geographical and hostal distribution of L. major zymodemes. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. In press.Google Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M., Cibulskis, R. E. and Peters, W. (1986c) Leishmania in the Old World: 5. Numerical analysis of isoenzyme data. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. In press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M. and Peters, W. (1986a) Leishmania in the Old World: 2. Heterogeneity among L. tropica zymodemes. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. In press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M. and Peters, W. (1986b) Leishmania in the Old World: 4. The distribution of L. donovani sensu lato zymodemes. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. In press.Google Scholar
Le Blancq, S. M., Schnur, L. F. and Schlein, Y. (1983) An apparent association of enzymic variants of Leishmania major with specific geographical areas in Israel. Bull. Soc. Path. exot. 76, 543548.Google ScholarPubMed
Le Ray, D., Afchain, D. and Capron, A. (1977) Contributions de la connaissance des antigens de Leishmania à l'immunologie des trypanosomatidae. Colloques Internationaux du C.N.R.S., No. 239, Ecologie des Leishmanioses, pp. 6473.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R. (1974) Biochemical taxonomy of Leishmania. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 68, 7475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maazoun, R., Lanotte, G., Pasteur, N., Rioux, J.-A., Kennou, M. F. and Pratlong, F. (1981a) Écologie des leishmanioses dans le sud de la France 16. Contribution à l'analyse chimiotaxonomique des parasites de la leishmaniose viscérale méditerranéenne. A propos de 55 souches isolées en Cévennes, Côte d'Azur, Corse et Tunisie. Annls Parasit. hum. comp. 56, 131146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maazoun, R., Lanotte, G., Rioux, J.-A., Pasteur, N., Killicfc-Kendrick, R. and Pratlong, F. (1981b) Signification du Polymorphisme enzymatique chez les leishmanies. A propos de trois souches hétérozygotes de Leishmania infantum Nicolle, 1908, Leishmania cf. tarentolae Wen-yon, 1921 et Leishmania aethiopica Bray, Ashford and Bray, 1973. Annls Parasit. hum. comp. 56, 467475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manson-Bahr, P. E. C. and Winslow, D. J. (1971) Cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Pathology of Protozoal and Helminthic Diseases (Edited by Marcial-Rojas, R. A.), pp. 97114. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Marques da Cuhna, A. (1942) A sero-agglutinaçao das leishmanias. Memor. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 37, 3576.Google Scholar
Matossian-Rogers, A., Lumsden, W. H. R. and Dumonde, D. C. (1976) Numerical Taxonomy of Leishmania I. Differentiation of four strains of Leishmania by serological tests. Immunology 31, 119.Google ScholarPubMed
McMahon-Pratt, D. and David, J. R. (1981) Monoclonal antibodies that distinguish between New World species of Leishmania. Nature 291, 581583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMahon-Pratt, D. and David, J. R. (1982) Application of monoclonal antibodies specific for Leishmania species. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 247257. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
McMahon-Pratt, D., Bennett, E. and David, J. R. (1982) Monoclonal antibodies that distinguish subspecies of Leishmania braziliensis. J. Immun. 129, 926927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miles, M. A., Lanham, S. M., Souza, A. A. de and Povoa, M. M. (1980a) Further enzymic characters of Trypanosoma cruzi and their evaluation for strain identification. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 74, 221237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miles, M. A., Povoa, M. M., Souza, A. A. de, Lainson, R. and Shaw, J. J. (1980b) Some methods for the enzymic characterization of Latin American Leishmania with particular reference to L. mexicana amazonensis and subspecies of Leishmania hertigi. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 74, 243252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, W. (1981) Technologogical advances in protozoal taxonomy and systematics. In Parasitological Topics: a Presentation Volume to P. C. C. Garnham FRS on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday (Edited by Canning, E. V.), pp. 200209. Society of Protozoologists Special Publication No. 1.Google Scholar
Peters, W. (1982) Introduction to the Workshop. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), PP. 17. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Saf'Janova, V. M. and Aliev, E. I. (1971) On the method for evaluation of the degree of antigenic relationship of different strains of Leishmania. Medskaya Parazit. 40, 315321.Google Scholar
Saf'Janova, V. M. and Aliev, E. I. (1973) Comparative study of biochemical characteristics of the causal agents of zoonotic and anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in the USSR. Bull. Wld Hlth Org. 49, 499506.Google Scholar
Schlein, Y., Warburg, A., Schnur, L. F., Le Blancq, S. M. and Gunders, A. E. (1984) Leishmaniasis in Israel: Reservoir hosts, sandfly vectors and leishmanial strains in the Negev, Central Arava and along the Dead Sea. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 78, 480484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnur, L. F. (1977) Insect flagellate excreted factors from leptomonad, crithidial and herpetomonad strains, J. Protozool. 24, 5A–6A.Google Scholar
Schnur, L. F. (1982) The immunological identification and characterization of leishmanial stocks and strains, with special reference to excreted factor serotyping. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 2547. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Schnur, L. F., Chance, M. L., Ebert, F., Thomas, S. C. and Peters, W. (1981) The biochemical and serological taxonomy of visceralizing Leishmania. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 75, 131144.Google Scholar
Schnur, L. F. and Le Blancq, S. M. (1986) The serological and enzymological characterisation of aetiological agents of leishmaniasis in Israel. Annls Parasit. hum. comp. In press.Google Scholar
Schnur, L. F., Morsy, T. A., Feinsod, F. M. and El Missiry, A. G. (1985) Is Leishmania major the cause of infantile kala-azar in Alexandria, Egypt?CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schnur, L. F. and Zuckerman, A. (1977) Leishmanial excreted factor (EF) serotypes in Sudan, Kenya and Ethiopia. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 71, 273294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnur, L. F., Zuckerman, A. and Greenblatt, C. L. (1972) Leishmanial serotypes as distinguished by the gel diffusion of factors excreted in vitro and in vivo. Israel J. med. Sci. 8, 932942.Google ScholarPubMed
Schnur, L. F., Zuckerman, A. and Montilio, B. (1973) Dissemination of leishmanias to the organs of Syrian hamsters following intrasplenic inoculation of pro-mastigotes. Expl Parasit. 34, 432447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schottelius, J. (1982) Lectin binding strain-specific carbohydrates on the cell surfaces of Leishmania strains from the Old World. Z. Parasitenkd. 66, 237247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, J. J. (1982) Taxonomy of the genus Leishmania: Traditionalist's View and Modern Concepts. In Biochemical Characterization of Leishmania (Edited by Chance, M. L. and Walton, B. C.), pp. 924. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme in Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Shaw, J. J. and Lainson, R. (1976) Leishmaniasis in Brazil: XI. Observations on the morphology of Leishmania of the braziliensis and mexicana complexes. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 76, 913.Google Scholar
Sneath, P. H. A. (1964) New approaches to bacterial taxonomy: Use of computers. A. Rev. Microbiol. 18, 335346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sneath, P. H. A. and Sokal, R. R. (1962) Numerical taxonomy. Nature 193, 855860.Google ScholarPubMed
Sneath, P. H. A. and Sokal, R. R. (1973) Numerical Taxonomy. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Spithill, T. W., Grumont, R. J. and Mitchell, G. F. (1984) Characterization of isolates and clones of Leishmania by analysis of kinetoplast DNA. J. cell. Biochem. 24, 103112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stauber, L. A. (1958) Host resistance to the Khartoum strain of Leishmania donovani. Rice Inst. Pamph. 45, 8096.Google Scholar
Stauber, L. A. (1966) Characterisation of strains of Leishmania donovani. Expl Parasit. 18, 111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tait, A. (1980) Evidence for diploidy and mating in trypanosomes. Nature 287, 536538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turk, J. L. and Belehu, A. (1974) Immunological spectra in infectious diseases. In Parasites in the Immunized Host Mechanisms of Survival, Ciba Foundation Symposium 25 (new series), pp. 101122. Associated Scientific Publishers, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Turk, J. L. and Bryceson, A. D. M. (1971) Immunological phenomena in leprosy and related diseases. Adv. Immun. 13, 209266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vessal, M., Rezai, H. R. and Pakzad, P. (1974) Leishmania species: fatty acid composition of promastigotes. Expl Parasit. 36, 455461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickerman, K. (1976) The diversity of the kinetoplastid flagellates. In Biology of the Kinetoplastida, Vol. 1 (Edited by Lumsden, W. H. R. and Evans, D. A.), pp. 134. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Walton, B. C. (1984) Application of biochemical and molecular biology techniques to problems of identification and taxonomy of Leishmania. In New Approaches to the Identification of Parasites and Their Vectors, Tropical Diseases Research Series Vol. 5 (Edited by Newton, B. M. and Michal, F.), pp. 277292. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva.Google Scholar
Wilson, V. C. L. S. and Southgate, B. A. (1979) Lizard Leishmania. In Biology of the Kinetoplastida, Vol. 2 (Edited by Lumsden, W. H. R. and Evans, D. A.), pp. 241268. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Wirth, D. F. and McMahon-Pratt, D. (1982) Rapid identification of Leishmania species by specific hybridization of kinetoplast DNA in cutaneous lesions. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79, 69997003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WHO (1984) The Leishmaniases. In Technical Report Series 701. World Health Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Yakimoff, W. L. and Schokhor, N. I. (1914) Recherches sur les maladies tropicales humaine et animales au Turkestan russe. C.r. Séanc. Soc. Biol. Med. 25, 196197.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, A. and Lainson, R. (1977) Leishmania. In Parasitic Protozoa, Vol. I (Edited by Kreier, J. P.), pp. 57133. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar