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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 April 2016
Similar to ruling elites in Western Europe, the Ottomans were preoccupied with foreign “public opinion” regarding their state. Historians have devoted attention to Ottoman state efforts at image building abroad and, to a lesser degree, related attempts to influence the European mass press. Yet, an in-depth study of this subject is lacking. This article turns to one of the prime, though largely neglected, actors in Ottoman foreign policy making: the sultan's diplomats. Through a case study of Ottoman envoys to Belgium, it demonstrates how foreign “press management” evolved and was adapted to shifting domestic and international political circumstances. Increasingly systematic attempts to influence Belgian newspapers can be discerned from the reign of Abdülhamid II onward. Brokers between Istanbul and “liberal” Belgium's thriving newspaper business, Ottoman diplomats proved essential to this development. Ultimately, however, Ottoman efforts to counter Belgian (and European) news coverage of the empire had little impact and occasionally even worked counterproductively, generating the very Orientalist images they aimed to combat in the first place.
Authors' note: We express our gratitude to Henk de Smaele, Marnix Beyen, Wannes Dupont, Erol Baykal, and three anonymous IJMES reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this article. We also thank Sinan Kuneralp, who kindly shared his notes for two of his forthcoming studies, and Marc D'Hoore of the Royal Library of Belgium, who helped us to obtain digital copies of the newspaper cartoons reproduced in this article. Finally, thanks to the Research Foundation–Flanders (FWO) for financial support.
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59 Information deduced from some complaint letters to Karatodori, written by the paper's staff and director. We treat this issue in more detail later in the article.
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64 We could not locate this newspaper article.
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100 Letter to Tevfik Pasha, 25 January 1896, BOA, HR.SYS 226/24.
101 Tevfik Pasha to Karatodori, 3 November 1896, BOA, HR.SYS 226/34.
102 See, for example, letters to Said Pasha, 11 and 26 December 1894, BOA, HR.SYS 226/9–10; and letter to Türkhan Pasha, 20 June 1895, BOA, HR.SYS 226/14.
103 Telegram from Tevfik Pasha, 23 April 1896, BOA, HR.SYS 226/27.
104 The first complaint dated as early as 13 September 1892, BOA, HR.SYS 225/68.
105 See, for example, letter to Said Pasha, 20 February 1895, BOA, HR.SYS 226/13.
106 Letter to Karatodori, 4 October 1897, BOA, HR.SYS 226/40.
107 This according to the Belgian chargé d'affaires in the Ottoman capital, in a report to de Favereau, 23 November 1898, Archief van de Federale Overheidsdienst Buitenlandse Zaken, Brussels (hereafter ABZ), Correspondance politique-Turquie (hereafter CPT), vol. 3.
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113 Quoted in Reyntjens, “Osmaans diplomaat tussen hof en salons,” 21. Our translation.
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115 Groc, “La presse jeune-turque,” 435.
116 Letter to Tevfik Pasha, 4 September 1900, BOA, HR.SYS 227/7.
117 See Karatodori's correspondence with Tevfik Pasha between 4 September and 21 December 1900, BOA, HR.SYS 227.
118 Deringil, Well-Protected Domains, 140.
119 For instance, in late 1900 some CUP members in Britain founded a satirical journal with the sole intent of extorting money from Istanbul; they effectively sold it. Hanioğlu, The Young Turks in Opposition, 154.
120 Van Campenhout, “De Jonge Turken in België,” 86–87; Karatodori to Tevfik Pasha, 17 October 1900, BOA, HR.SYS 227/11.
121 See telegrams from Tevfik Pasha on 12 September and 2 and 10 October 1900, BOA, HR.SYS 227.
122 Letter to Tevfik Pasha, 21 December 1900, BOA, HR.SYS 227/10.
123 In an account by Le Petit Bleu, 20 November 1900, a newspaper clipping of this article is preserved in ABZ, Dossiers de presse (hereafter DP), 104.
124 The French diplomatic representative in Brussels to Delcassé, 18 January 1900, Archives Diplomatiques, Paris, Correspondance politique et commerciale-Turquie, 1.
125 Compare articles on Karatodori in Le Petit Bleu (18 November 1900), La Chronique (23 November) and Frankfurter Zeitung (29 November), ABZ, DP, 104.
126 See the press clippings in ABZ, DP, 104.
127 Le Soir, 18 January 1901.
128 Quoted in Sinan Kuneralp's forthcoming The Sultan's Envoys: A Biographic Guide to Ottoman Diplomats (1832–1922) (Istanbul: Isis Press).
129 Ibid.
130 Münir Bey to Tevfik Pasha, 3 June 1902, BOA, HR.SYS 227/20; General Tevfik Pasha (military attaché at the Brussels Legation) to Tevfik Pasha, 14 January 1906, BOA, HR.SYS 227/40.
131 Münir to Tevfik Pasha, 27 March 1905, BOA, HR.SYS 227/36.
132 Letter to Tevfik Pasha, 27 May 1902, BOA, HR.SYS 227/21.
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134 See, for example, Tevfik Pasha to Emin Arslan Effendi, 5 February 1901, BOA, HR.SYS 227/14; and to Münir, 28 July 1903, BOA, HR.SYS, 227/29.
135 Tevfik to Ragıb Raîf Bey, 16 June 1908, HR.SYS 227/54; Ragıb Raîf to Tevfik, 21 May 1908, BOA, HR.SYS 227/52.
136 Ragıb Raîf to Tevfik, 14 July 1908, BOA, HR.SYS 227/55.
137 Letter to Tevfik, 3 June 1902, BOA, HR.SYS 227/20.
138 Münir Bey to Tevfik, 27 November and 4 December 1901, BOA, HR.SYS 227/17–18.
139 Mihran to Tevfik, 8 March 1904, BOA, HR.SYS 227/32.
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144 See, for example, Ragıb Raîf to Tevfik, 6 April 1907, BOA, HR.SYS 227/45.
145 Letter to Ferid Pasha, 29 July 1905, BOA, HR.SYS 227/38.
146 Erol Baykal, “The Ottoman Press, 1908-1923” (PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2012).
147 Yosmaoğlu, “Chasing the Printed Word,” 48, 31–47.
148 For examples, see DDWW, vol. 5, The Turco-Italian War 1911–1912, ed. Kuneralp.
149 Findley, Ottoman Officialdom, 227.
150 Letter to Mustafa Âsım Bey, 29 February 1912, BOA, HR.SYS 229/60.
151 See, for example, Esad Bey to Hakkı Pasha, 11 September and 7 October 1911, in DDWW, 5:113–14, 216–17.
152 Deringil, Well-Protected Domains, 139.
153 Letter to Âli Pasha, 8 July 1869, BOA, HR.SYS 220/40; letter to Safvet Pasha, 28 January 1869, BOA, HR.SYS 220/21. For Karatodori, see his report to Said Pasha, 13 July 1889, BOA, HR.SYS 225/41.
154 Letter to Raşid Pasha, 21 April 1876, in DDEQ, 7:359.
155 As recounted by Vehbi, Ali in L'Empire ottoman et l'Europe d'après les pensées et souvenirs du sultan Abdul-Hamid II (1876–1909): Réimpression de l'édition originale (1914), ed. Merad, Ali (Paris: Publisud, 2007), 220–21Google Scholar.