Author's note: This article is based on research funded by the Immigration History Research Center (IHRC) of the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and by DePaul University in Chicago. For support to study the Philip Hitti collection, I thank everyone at the IHRC, especially Donna Gabaccia, Elizabeth Haven Hawley, and Daniel Necas. Previous versions of this article were presented at the Brazilian Studies Association meeting at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Center for Contemporary Arab Studies at Georgetown University, and the Department and Program of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. For thought-provoking suggestions at these and other venues, I thank Theresa Alfaro-Velcamp, Andrew Arsan, Jerry Dávila, Sarah Gualtieri, Waïl Hassan, Simon Jackson, Akram Khater, Lorenzo Macagno, Eugene Nassar, Chernoh Sesay Jr., and Oswaldo Truzzi. I express my personal gratitude to Josephine El Karkafi for translation assistance from Arabic to English. Most important, I am indebted to IJMES editor Beth Baron, associate editor Sara Pursley, and four anonymous reviewers whose critical engagements made this a better piece. All shortcomings are my own.

¹ Appadurai, Arjun, “Grassroots Globalization and the Research Imagination,” in Globalization, ed. Appadurai, Arjun (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Axel, Brian Keith, The Nation's Tortured Body: Violence, Representation, and the Formation of a Sikh ‘Diaspora’ (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 9–10Google Scholar; Braziel, Jana Evans and Mannur, Anita, “Nation, Migration, Globalization: Points of Contention in Diaspora Studies,” in Theorizing Diaspora, ed. Braziel, Jana Evans and Mannur, Anita (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 6Google Scholar; Chow, Rey, Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies (Bloomington, Ind.: University of Indiana Press, 1993), 25Google Scholar; Dirlik, Arif, “Asia Pacific Studies in an Age of Global Modernity,” in Remaking Area Studies: Teaching and Learning across Asia and the Pacific, ed. Wesley-Smith, Terence and Gross, Jon (Manoa, Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press, 2010), 17–18Google Scholar; Robbins, Bruce, “Some Versions of U.S. Internationalism,” Social Text 45 (1995): 97–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

² Flores, Juan and Yúdice, George, “Living Borders/Buscando America: Languages of Latina/o Self-Formation,” Social Text 24 (1990): 57–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Saldívar, José, The Dialectics of Our America: Geneaology, Cultural Critique, and Literary History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Poblete, Juan, ed., Critical Latin American and Latino Studies (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

³ Gilroy, Paul, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London: Verso, 1993)Google Scholar; Brown, Jacqueline, “Black Liverpool, Black America, and the Gendering of Diasporic Space,” Cultural Anthropology 13 (1998): 291–335CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ Wilson, Rob and Dirlik, Arif, eds., Asia/Pacific as a Space of Cultural Production (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Dirlik, Arif, ed., What Is in a Rim? Critical Perspectives on the Pacific Region Idea (Boston: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁵ Ho, Engseng, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kahn, Joel, Other Malays: Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism in the Modern Malay World (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Khuri-Makdisi, Ilham, The Eastern Mediterranean and the Making of Global Radicalism, 1860–1914 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ Szanton, David, “The Origin, Nature, and Challenges of Area Studies in the United States,” in The Politics of Knowledge: Area Studies and the Disciplines, ed. Szanton, David (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2004), 1–33Google Scholar.

⁷ Timothy Mitchell, “The Middle East in the Past and Future of Social Science,” in Szanton, The Politics of Knowledge, 86–87.

⁸ Ibid., 99; Rafael, Vicente, “The Cultures of Area Studies in the United States,” Social Text 41 (1994): 95Google Scholar.

⁹ Mitchell, “The Middle East,” 86.

¹⁰ Khater, Akram, “Becoming ‘Syrian’ in America: A Global Geography of Ethnicity and Nation,” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 14 (2005): 299–331CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ Fernea, Robert, “Anthropology of the Middle East and North Africa: A Critical Assessment,” Annual Review of Anthropology 4 (1975): 183–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cohen, Erik, “Recent Anthropological Studies of Middle Eastern Communities and Ethnic Groups,” Annual Review of Anthropology 6 (1977): 315–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gilmore, David, “Anthropology of the Mediterranean Area,” Annual Review of Anthropology 11 (1982): 175–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sabagh, Georges and Ghazalla, Iman, “Arab Sociology Today: A View from Within,” Annual Review of Sociology 12 (1986): 373–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abu-Lughod, Lila, “Zones of Theory in the Anthropology of the Arab World,” Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 267–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Deeb, Lara and Winegar, Jessica, “Anthropologies of Arab-Majority Societies,” Annual Review of Anthropology 41 (2012): 537–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² Boxberger, Linda, On the Edge of Empire: Hadhramawt, Emigration, and the Indian Ocean, 1880s-1930s (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Ho, The Graves of Tarim; Freitag, Ulrike and Clarence-Smith, William G., eds., Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s to 1960s (Leiden: Brill, 1997)Google Scholar; Manger, Leif, The Hadrami Diaspora: Community-Building on the Indian Ocean Rim (London: Berghahn Book, 2010)Google Scholar; Slama, Martin and Heiss, Johann, “Comparing Arab Diasporas: Post 9/11 and Historical Perspectives on Hadrami and Syro-Lebanese Communities in Southeast Asia and the Americas,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 31 (2011): 231–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Ghazal, Amal, Islamic Reform and Arab Nationalism: Expanding the Crescent from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean (1880s–1930s) (New York: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar; Gilbert, Erik, “Coastal East Africa and the Western Indian Ocean: Long-Distance Trade, Empire, Migration, and Regional Unity, 1750–1970,” The History Teacher 36 (2002): 7–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Limbert, Mandana, In the Time of Oil: Piety, Memory, and Social Life in an Omani Town (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar, esp. chap. 6; Verne, Julia and Müller-Mahn, Detlef, “‘We Are Part of Zanzibar’: Translocal Practices and Imaginative Geographies in Contemporary Oman-Zanzibar Relations,” in Regionalising Oman, ed. Wippel, Steffan (Dordrecht: Springer, 2013)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Khater, Akram, Inventing Home: Emigration, Gender, and the Middle Class in Lebanon, 1870–1920 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Gualtieri, Sarah, Between Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early Syrian American Diaspora (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Khuri-Makdisi, The Eastern Mediterranean; Hyland, Steven Jr., “‘Arisen from Deep Slumber’: Transnational Politics and Competing Nationalisms among Syrian Immigrants in Argentina, 1920–1922,” Journal of Latin American Studies 43 (2011): 547–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Arsan, Andrew, Interlopers of Empire: The Lebanese Diaspora in Colonial French West Africa (London: Hurst Publishers, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pinto, Paulo Gabriel Hilu da Rocha, Árabes no Rio de Janeiro: Uma identidade plural (Rio de Janeiro: Cidade Viva, 2010)Google Scholar; Fahrenthold, Stacy, “Sound Minds in Sound Bodies: Transnational Philanthropy and Patriotic Masculinity in al-Nadi al-Homsi and Syrian Brazil, 1920–32,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 46 (2014): 259–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Said, Edward, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978)Google Scholar; Shohat, Ella, “Area Studies, Transnationalism, and the Feminist Production of Knowledge,” Signs 24 (2001): 1269–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Area Studies, Gender Studies, and the Cartographies of Knowledge,” Social Text 20, no. 3 (2002): 67–78.

¹⁶ Guyer, Jane, “Anthropology in Area Studies,” Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 516–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ Arsan, Andrew, Khater, Akram, and Karam, John Tofik, “Editorial Forward,” Mashriq & Mahjar: Journal of Middle East Migration Studies 1 (2013): 1, 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This essay introduced the inaugural issue of the peer-reviewed online journal, which can be found at: http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/akhater/Mashriq/index.html.

¹⁸ Khater, “Becoming ‘Syrian,’” 302.

¹⁹ Lockman, Zachary, Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 127CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰ Starkey, John R., “A Talk with Philip Hitti,” Saudi Aramco World 22, no. 4 (1971): 23–31Google Scholar.

²¹ Ho, Engseng, “Empire through Diasporic Eyes: A View from the Other Boat,” Comparative Studies of Society and History 46 (2004): 210–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²² Starkey, “A Talk with Philip Hitti,” 27–28.

²³ Gallagher, John and Robinson, Ronald, “The Imperialism of Free Trade,” Economic History Review 6 (1953): 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a recent summary of the long debate about the concept, see Brown, Matthew, ed., Informal Empire in Latin America: Culture, Commerce and Capital (London: Blackwell Publishing and the Society for Latin American Studies, 2009)Google Scholar.

²⁴ Freyre, Gilberto, Casa Grande e Senzala (Rio de Janeiro: Maia e Schmidt, 1933)Google Scholar. It was translated into English as The Masters and the Slaves (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956).

²⁵ Burke, Peter and Pallares-Burke, Maria Lúcia G., Gilberto Freyre: Social Theory in the Tropics (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2008), 63Google Scholar.

²⁶ Shohat, Ella, “The Sephardi-Moorish Atlantic: Between Orientalism and Occidentalism,” in Between the Middle East and the Americas: The Cultural Politics of Diaspora, ed. Alsultany, Evelyn and Shohat, Ella (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press), 54Google Scholar. See also José Martí, Obras Completas V (Habana: Editorial Nacional de Cuba, 1893 [1963]), 334–35; Lugones, Leopoldo, El Payador (Buenos Aires: Stock Cero, 1916 [2004])Google Scholar; and Vasconcelos, José, La Raza Cósmica (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1925 [1997])Google Scholar.

²⁷ Shryock, Andrew, “Introduction: Islam as an Object of Fear and Affection,” in Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend, ed. Shryock, Andrew (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2010), 1–25Google Scholar.

²⁸ Brubaker, Rogers, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28 (2005): 13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁹ Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 4Google Scholar.

³⁰ Scholz, Norbert, Foreign Education and Indigenous Reaction in Late Ottoman Lebanon: Students and Teachers at the Syrian Protestant College in Beirut (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University, 1997), 160Google Scholar.

³¹ Philip K. Hitti, “From Lebanon to Princeton,” 40, in Philip Hitti Papers, Immigration History Research Center (hereafter IHRC) 894, Box 21, Folder 2. The IHRC is part of the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and holds the personal papers of Philip Hitti.

³² Khuri-Makdisi, The Eastern Mediterranean.

³³ “Letter of Howard Bliss,” 6 July 1913, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 4, Folder 6.

³⁴ Starkey, “A Talk with Philip Hitti,” 25. See also Philip K. Hitti, “From Lebanon to Princeton,” 46–47, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 21, Folder 2.

³⁵ Hitti published a booklet in Arabic on this figure a year later; see Hitti, Philip, Antuniyus al-Bishʿalani: Awwal Muhajir Suri ila al-ʿAlam al-Jadid (New York: Syrian American Press, 1916)Google Scholar.

³⁶ “Letters to the Editor: Dr. Hitti Reveals the Bishalany Story,” Lebanese American Journal, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 1, Folder 1.

³⁷ Narbona, María del Mar Logroño, The Development of Nationalist Identities in French Syria and Lebanon (Santa Barbara, Calif.: University of California, 2007), 61Google Scholar; Truzzi, Oswaldo, Patrícios: Sírios e libaneses em São Paulo (São Paulo: Hucitec, 1994), 83, 129–30Google Scholar; Duoun, Taufik, Confissões e indiscrições: Meio século de experiências em quatro continentes (São Paulo: Tipografia Editora Árabe, 1943)Google Scholar.

³⁸ Duoun, Taufik, “Al-duktūr Filīb Hiti,” Al-Dalil-O Guia: Órgão Social, Literario, Noticario, Esportivo e Commercial 1, no. 2 (1925): 1–4Google Scholar, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 1.

³⁹ Duʾun (Taufik Duoun), Taufiq Fadlallah, Min Wahy al-Sabʿin 1883–1953: Fi al-Silah bayna al-Mughtaribun wa-l-Muqimun (Beirut: Mansurat Matabi Sadir, 1953)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Safady, Jamil, Panorama da imigração árabe (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1973), 16–17Google Scholar; Safady, Jorge, Antologia árabe do Brasil (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1972), 13Google Scholar; Safady, Wadih, Cenas e cenários dos caminhos de minha vida (São Paulo: Penna Editora, 1966), 172, 215–17Google Scholar; Lacaz, Carlos da Silva, Médicos sírios e libaneses do passado: Trajetória em busca de uma nova pátria (São Paulo: Almed, 1982), 72–75Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Duoun, Taufik, A emigração sirio-libanesa ás terras de promissão (São Paulo: Tipografia Editora Árabe, 1944), 77, 89, 131Google Scholar; Safady, Jamil, cited in A cultura árabe no Brasil, Líbano e Síria (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1971), 43Google Scholar; Safady, Jorge, Antologia árabe do Brasil (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1972), 13, 14Google Scholar.

⁴² “Colônia ottomana de São Paulo: Um telegramma à Sublime Porta,” Correio Paulistano, 15 September 1914, 1. A year previously, however, Nami Jafet severely criticized Ottoman rule; see Jafet, Nami, Ensaios e discursos, trans. and preface by Kurban, Taufik (São Paulo: Editora S/A, 1947), 283–99Google Scholar.

⁴³ Jafet, Ensaios e discursos, 327–30; Kurban, Taufik, “Nota Biográfica,” in Ensaios e discursos (São Paulo: Editora S/A, 1947)Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Kurban, Taufik, Os syrios e libanezes no Brasil (São Paulo: Sociedade Impressora Paulista, 1933)Google Scholar; Kurban, Taufik, Ensaios e biografias (São Paulo: Sociedade Impressora Paulista, 1937)Google Scholar; Jafet, Ensaios e discursos.

⁴⁵ Truzzi, Oswaldo, De mascates a doutores: Sírios e libaneses em São Paulo (IDESP: Editora Sumaré, 1992), 44, 100Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ A. Duarte Silva, “Os árabes da Turquia perante à situação do imperio ottomano: O que pensa a colônia syria de S. Paulo—Uma entrevista com o dr. Said Abu Jamra,” Correio Paulistano, 1 May 1915, 1.

⁴⁷ Philip K. Hitti, “The Syrians as Immigrants,” The Syrian Review, December 1917, pp. 5–9, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 18, Folder 1. This statement was repeated in the opening paragraph of Hitti's first book, The Syrians in America (New York: George H. Doran, 1924).

⁴⁸ Philip Hitti, “The Disposition of Syria: A Single Protectorate Preferred to a Division among Many Nations,” New York Times, 2 February 1919, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 9.

⁴⁹ Hyland, “‘Arisen from Deep Slumber.’”

⁵⁰ Arsan, Andrew, “‘This Age Is the Age of Associations’: Committees, Petitions, and the Roots of Middle Eastern Internationalism,” Journal of Global History 7 (2012): 166–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵¹ Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 251; “Remarks of Philip K. Hitti at Jafet Luncheon, New York, November 12, 1946,” in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box “Book reviews, speeches, radio broadcasts, reports from AUB,” Folder 6.

⁵² Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 251.

⁵³ Ibid., 253; Kurban, “Nota Biográfica,” 61.

⁵⁴ Duoun, “Al-duktūr Filīb Hiti”; Letter to Albert Staub from AUB President regarding Philip Hitti, 26 August 1924, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 8, Folder 10, IHRC; “Alumni Fund Progresses: Dr. Hitti Visits South America,” American University of Beirut News Letter, September 1925, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box Newspaper Clippings, Folder 10, IHRC; Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 252–53; Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 204.

⁵⁵ Letter from Philip Hitti to wife Mary, 18 July 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 1, Folder 4.

⁵⁶ Letters from Philip Hitti to wife Mary, 20 July 1925, 25 July 1925, 29 July 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 1, Folder 4, IHRC; Letter from Philip Hitti to wife Mary, 24 July 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 2, Folder 2; Duoun, “Al-duktūr Filīb Hiti.”

⁵⁷ Letters from Philip Hitti to wife Mary, 2 August 1925, 11 August 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 1, Folder 4; Rashid J. Abu-Kessem, “A Report on Dr. Hitti's Visit to Brazil,” 28 August 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 13. Abu-Kessm graduated from AUB in 1909, and after spending some time in New York, he migrated to Brazil, where he served as secretary of the AUB alumni association in the 1920s.

⁵⁸ Letters from Philip Hitti to wife Mary, 25 July 1925.

⁵⁹ Letter from Near East Colleges Assistant Director to Mary Hitti, quoting Philip Hitti's telegram, 10 August 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 2, Folder 2. This number and occasion were repeated in “Alumni Fund Progresses: Dr. Hitti Visits South America,” News Letter of Near East Colleges, September 1925, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 10; as well as Rashid J. Abu-Kessem, “A Report on Dr. Hitti's Visit to Brazil,” 28 August 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 13, p. 10.

⁶⁰ Jamil Safady, “Entrevista com o Dr. Said Abu-Jamra,” A Pátria, 25 January 1945, 1–2, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁶¹ Rashid J. Abu-Kessem, “A Report on Dr. Hitti's Visit to Brazil,” 28 August 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 13, p. 5.

⁶² Some twenty years later, Duoun and the Safady brothers affirmed that during this first trip to Brazil, Hitti encouraged alumni to examine the “viability” of an advanced Arabic course in Brazil. Jamil Safady, “Associacão da Literatura Árabe-Brasileira,” A Pátria, 5 May 1945, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 9; Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 279; Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 204.

⁶³ Isaac Marcosson, “Brazil in Evolution,” The Saturday Evening Post, 19 September 1925.

⁶⁴ Phillip Hitti, “Brazil: A True Melting Pot,” Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 25 October 1925.

⁶⁵ Letter to Philip Hitti from Brazilian Ambassador, S. Gurgel Amaral, 28 October 1925, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 5, Folder 2; “Herdeiros afortunados das tradições latinas,” O Paíz, 19 December 1925, 1. Duoun later reiterated that Hitti's defense of Brazil was praised by Brazilian diplomats in the United States and was also republished in Brazilian newspapers. See Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 252–53.

⁶⁶ Lesser, Jeffrey, Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Starkey, “A Talk with Philip Hitti,” 24.

⁶⁸ Ibid.; Hitti, Philip, History of the Arabs (London: MacMillan, 1937)Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Choueiri, Youssef M., “Historical Writing in the Arab World,” The Oxford History of Historical Writing, vol. 4 (1800–1945), ed. Macintyre, Stuart, Maiguashca, Juan, and Pók, Attila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 589Google Scholar; Khoury, Philip S., “Introduction,” in Philip Hitti, The Arabs: A Short History (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Starkey, “A Talk with Philip Hitti,” 27–28.

⁷¹ Ibid. Unlike most conventional understandings of area studies that locate its origins in World War II and U.S. expansion during the Cold War, Mitchell suggests that Middle East area studies in the United States first emerged during the interwar period. See Mitchell, “The Middle East.”

⁷² Hitti, Philip, The Arabs: A Short History for Americans (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1943), viiiGoogle Scholar. Obviously, “for Americans” was dropped in later editions.

⁷³ “A História dos Árabes,” A Pátria, 26 July 1945, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 15, Folder 1; Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 12 May 1945, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 6, Folder 21.

⁷⁴ Suleiman, Michael, “A History of Arab-American Political Participation,” in American Arabs and Political Participation, ed. Strum, Philippa (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars, 2006), 11Google Scholar; “Testimony of Philip K. Hitti Before the Committee of the House of Representatives on Foreign Affairs,” Original mimeo, 15 February 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 17, Folder 3.

⁷⁵ “Declarações do Dr. Philip K. Hitti perante a Comissão dos Negócios Exteriores do Parlamento dos Estados Unidos (Autorização especial do autor),” A Pátria, 9 September 1944, 1–2, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 12.

⁷⁶ “Palestina—Dr. Feli[p]e K. Hitti,” Boletin Arabe (Santiago), December 1945, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box News clippings, Folder 9; Western Union Telegram from Juan Canavati, Monterrey, NL, 11 November 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 1, Folder 5.

⁷⁷ Ziadeh, Farhat, “Winds Blow Where Ships Do Not Wish to Go,” in Paths to the Middle East: Ten Scholars Look Back, ed. Naff, Thomas (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1993), 306Google Scholar; Gualtieri, Between Arab and White, 165–66.

⁷⁸ Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 5 February 1946, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 9, Folder 21, IHRC.

⁷⁹ Lockman, Contending Visions of the Middle East.

⁸⁰ Philip Hitti, “Os estudos árabes em o novo mundo,” A Pátria, 28 March 1945, 1–2, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁸¹ Ibid. The original version, published in Arabic, was translated into Portuguese and reprinted in Jamil Safady, “Resposta da Liga Andaluza de Letras ao manifesto do Dr. Philip K. Hitti na criação da Cadeira de Árabe na Universidade de São Paulo,” A Pátria, 14 April 1945, 1–2, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁸² Jamil Safady, “Biografia do Dr. Philip K. Hitti,” A Patria, 13 July 1944, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 3; Philip Hitti, “As Contribuições dos Árabes para a ciência,” A Patria, 12 January, 1945, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10; Philip Hitti, “A América e a Herança Árabe: Nosso Legado Cultural do Leste Árabe,” A Pátria, 30 April 1945, 27, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10; Philip Hitti, “Os Estados Unidos da America e os Povos Árabes,” A Pátria, 14 May 1946, 16, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 21; Philip Hitti, “A Síria, o Líbano e os Estados Unidos,” A Pátria, 9 July 1946, 1; Philip Hitti, “As origens do nacionalismo no mundo árabe,” 30 June 1947, A Pátria, 1–2; Philip Hitti, “As origens do nacionalismo no mundo árabe,” 31 Maio 1947, Correio do Oriente, 1–2; Philip Hitti, “As origens do nacionalismo no mundo árabe,” 1 January 1948, Folha do Norte—Página Libanesa, 10, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 21.

⁸³ Jamil Safady, “Resposta da Liga Andaluza de Letras.”

⁸⁴ Jamil Safady, “A idéia dos estudos árabes no Brasil,” A Pátria, 1945, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 3.

⁸⁵ Jamil Safady, “Associacão da Literatura Árabe-Brasileira: Resposta do Dr. Said Abu-Jamra, sob o Pseudônimo de ‘Arabí,’” A Pátria, 5 May 1945, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 9; Duoun, “Al-duktūr Filīb Hiti”; Duoun, A emigração sírio-libanesa, 279.

⁸⁶ “Carta do Dr. Philip K. Hitti ao Dr. Professor Jamil Safady,” A Pátria, 13 July 1944, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30, Folder 2.

⁸⁷ Sawaya, Paulo, Esboço histórico da Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciência e Letras da Universidade de São Paulo, 1934–1969 (São Paulo: FFLCH, 1979)Google Scholar; de Lourdes de Albuquerque Fávero, Maria, “A Universidade no Brasil: das origens à Reforma Universitária de 1968,” Educar 28 (2006): 17–36Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 204; Safady, Jamil, Língua Árabe: Evolução, Escrita, Ensino (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1950)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ “Dados Biográficos,” in Jamil Safady, Panorama da imigração árabe, v-vi; Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 279; “Manifestação para a Campanha dos Estudos Árabes,” A Pátria, 23 November 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 9; Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 204.

⁹⁰ Nimer, Miguel, Influências orientais na língua portuguesa (São Paulo: Edusp, 2000 [1943])Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Calil, Carlos Augusto, “O livro e seu autor,” in Influências orientais na língua portuguesa, Miguel Nimer (São Paulo: Edusp, 2000), 659–60Google Scholar.

⁹² Francisco da Silveira Bueno, “Influências orientais na língua portuguesa,” O Estado de S. Paulo, 11 March 1943, 4.

⁹³ Jamil Safady, “Instalação do Centro Brasileiro de Cultura Árabe,” A Pátria, 10 October 1944, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁹⁴ “Instalação oficial da cadeira de árabe, a primeira do Brasil,” A Pátria, 15 August 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10; Duoun, A emigração sirio-libanesa, 280; Calil, “O livro e seu autor,” 659–60.

⁹⁵ “A criação do curso de árabe da nossa universidade,” A Pátria, 15 August 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁹⁶ Calil, “O livro e seu autor,” 659.

⁹⁷ Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 28 August 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10; Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 22 September 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10; Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 12 May 1945, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 6, Folder 21. See also Letter to Jamil Safady from Philip Hitti, 21 August 1945.

⁹⁸ Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 22 September 1944, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 10.

⁹⁹ Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 12 May 1945, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 6, Folder 24.

¹⁰⁰ Safady, “Entrevista com o Dr. Said Abu-Jamra.”

¹⁰¹ Jamil Safady, “Associacão da Literatura Árabe-Brasileira: Resposta do Dr. Said Abu-Jamra.”

¹⁰² Jamil Safady, “Resposta da Liga Andaluza de Letras.”

¹⁰³ Letter to Philip Hitti from Wadih Safady, 5 February 1946, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 9, Folder 21.

¹⁰⁴ Motoyama, Shozo, “A Construção da Universidade, 1930–1969,” in USP, 70 Anos: Imagens de uma história vivida (São Paulo: Edusp, 2006), 134Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Eurípedes Simões de Paula, “Apresentação,” in Jamil Safady, Panorama da Imigração Árabe, vii-viii; Lacaz, Médicos sírios e libaneses do passado, 91; Motoyama, Shozo, “Lista de Diretores,” in USP, 70 Anos: Imagens de uma história vivida (São Paulo: Edusp, 2006), 678Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Theodoro, Janice, “Eurípedes Simões de Paula (1910–1977),” Revista de História 160 (2009): 41–43Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Hitti's visit received ample coverage, not only in A Pátria but also in mainstream media. “Constituiu notável acontecimento cultural, a visita do professor Philip K. Hitti a São Paulo,” A Pátria, 13 October 1951, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30; “Contribuição filosofíca árabe à cultura ocidental,” A Gazeta, 14 August 1951, A Pátria, 13 October 1951, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 7; “Organizações árabes e judaicas nos EE. Unidos contra os sionistas,” Jornal de Notícias, 4 August 1951, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30; “O Prof. Philip K. Hitti em S. Paulo,” Diario Comércio e Indústria, 2 September 1951, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30; “Encontra-se em São Paulo um orientalista norte-americano,” Folha da Manhã, 18 August 1951, 1, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 30.

¹⁰⁸ de Paula, Eurípedes Simões, “Resumo das conferências proferidas pelo prof. Philip K. Hitti na Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras da Universidade de São Paulo,” Revista de História 3 (1952): 248–56Google Scholar. Excerpts of Eurípedes Simões de Paula's August 1951 speech are cited by Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 207.

¹⁰⁹ Calil, “O livro e seu autor,” 659.

¹¹⁰ de Paula, Eurípedes Simões, Marrocos e suas relações com a Ibéria na antiguidade (São Paulo: FFLCH, 1946), 7Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ Freyre, Casa grande e senzala, 12–3, 214–16, 223–25. It must be noted here that the prominence Freyre attributed to the Moors in the Portuguese colonization of Brazil necessarily mythologized the violent and unequal relations between lighter-skinned men who enslaved darker-skinned women. Freyre argued that much of the “mixing” between Portuguese (male) masters and enslaved (female) Africans or Afro-Brazilians was due to the Portuguese men's coexistence with Moorish women in Islamic Iberia for centuries. The point is that race, gender, and sexuality are constitutive elements of area studies, wherever such models emerge. For two interesting discussions of the present-day politics of Moorishness in Brazil, see Amar, Paul, The Security Archipelago: Human-Security States, Sexuality Politics, and the End of Neoliberalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Aidi, Hisham, Rebel Music: Race, Empire, and the New Muslim Youth Culture (New York: Pantheon, 2014)Google Scholar.

¹¹² Freyre, Gilberto, Um brasileiro em terras portuguesas (Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio, 1953), 138–39Google Scholar.

¹¹³ Dávila, Jerry, Hotel Trópico: Brazil and the Challenge of African Decolonization (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2010), 14CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dávila, Jerry, “Entre dois mundos: Gilberto Freyre, a ONU e o apartheid sul-africano,” História Social 19 (2010): 144–45Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ “Professor Philip K. Hitti: Homenageado na Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras da USP,” A Pátria, 6 November 1951, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 29, Folder 4. Shorter excerpts of José Resstel's speech are cited by Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 207–208.

¹¹⁵ Ibid.

¹¹⁶ These talks were summarized by Eurípedes Simões de Paula, in “Resumo das conferências,” 248–56. Similar Portuguese and Arabic summaries were also published in a booklet, “Resumo das conferencias do Prof. Dr. Philip K. Hitti,” Universidade de São Paulo and Editora Comercial Safady, in Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 24, Folder 22.

¹¹⁷ Harvey, Leonard Patrick, Muslims in Spain, 1500–1614 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁸ Hitti, Philip, Os árabes, trans. Eduardo, Otávio da Costa (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1948)Google Scholar. For letters concerning translation and copyrights of Os árabes from 1945 to 1952, see Philip Hitti Papers, IHRC 894, Box 13, Folder, as well as Box 14, Folder 20.

¹¹⁹ Just two years earlier, Sawaya represented USP in the 200th-year anniversary of Princeton University. de Souza Campos, Ernesto, História da Universidade de São Paulo (São Paulo: Edusp, 2004), 132Google Scholar.

¹²⁰ Kaphan, Elisabeth Maria Sawaya, “Paulo Sawaya (1903–2003),” Jornal da USP 18 (2003)Google Scholar.

¹²¹ Ibid.

¹²² Excerpts of Paulo Sawaya's August 1951 speech are cited by Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 209.

¹²³ “The AUB Alumni World,” Middle East Forum 28 (1953): 36.

¹²⁴ “Brasil-República Árabe Unida: Acôrdo Cultural,” 17 May 1960, published in the “Diário Oficial” on 22 January 1965. The accord was initiated in the lead-up to the Brazilian president's visit with ʿAbd al-Nasir in 1961. For Quadros's view of ʿAbd al-Nasir, see Skidmore, Thomas, Politics in Brazil, 1930–64: An Experiment in Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 199Google Scholar. Brazilian president Quadros actually had a portrait of ʿAbd al-Nasir in his office (personal communication, Jerry Dávila).

¹²⁵ Simões de Paula, “Apresentação,” vii-viii; Safady, Cenas e Cenários, 210; Theodoro, “Eurípedes Simões de Paula,” 41.

¹²⁶ Rodrigo Martins, “Alcorão desvelado: Professor de árabe dedica duas décadas de esforço para criar a primeira versão oficial do livro sagrado em português,” Carta Capital, 12 July 2006, 54–55. Nasr spent a good part of his career working on the Portuguese translation of the Qurʾan, approved by the Islamic League of Mecca in 2005.

¹²⁷ The program is today part of USP's “Departmento de Letras Orientais.” For more information, see: http://www.letrasorientais.fflch.usp.br/arabe (accessed 4 April 2014).

¹²⁸ Anderson, Imagined Communities, 4, 6.

¹²⁹ In Brazil, see the “Núcleo de Estudos Medio-Orientais” coordinated by Professor Paulo Gabriel Hilu da Rocha Pinto at the Universidade Federal Fluminense in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, https://pt-br.facebook.com/neomuff; and the Biblioteca América do Sul-Países Árabes directed by Professor Paulo Elias Farah in São Paulo, http://www.bibliaspa.com.br. In Argentina, see the Programa de Estudios sobre Medio Oriente coordinated by Professor Juan José Vagni at the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, http://www.cea2.unc.edu.ar/africa-orientemedio/mediooriente.php; and the Centro de Estudios del Medio Oriente Contemporáneo run by Professor Paulo Botta. In Chile, see the Centro de Estúdios Árabes of Professor Eugenio Chahuan at the Universidad de Chile, http://www.estudiosarabes.uchile.cl/home/home.htm. In Mexico, there is the Centro de Estudios de Asia y África at El Colégio de México in the federal capital, http://ceaa.colmex.mx/index.php/historia. Although the centers in Chile and Mexico were founded in the 1960s, the others began in the 2000s (all links accessed 4 April 2014).

¹³⁰ In this regard, Mitchell writes that “the future of area studies lies in their ability to disturb the disciplinary claim to universality and the particular place this assigns to areas.” See Mitchell, “The Middle East,” 98.