Author's note: Funding for this research was provided by The Academic Research Institute in Iraq and the Ohio State University's Mershon Center for International Security Studies and Office of International Affairs. For their help and encouragement during various stages of research and writing, I express my sincere gratitude to Carter V. Findley, Samuel Dolbee, Jim Harris, Michael Christopher Low, Elizabeth Perego, Nükhet Varlık, Sam White, Camille Cole, Dianne G. Delima, Jeffrey Dyer, Moshe Matus, Doğa Öztürk, and Benjamin Smuin. For their feedback on earlier versions of this paper, I also thank the three anonymous IJMES reviewers, the journal's editorial board, and the participants of the Great Lakes Ottomanist Workshop (York University, 2016) and the Indian Ocean World Centre's conference on “Disease and Dispersion in the Indian Ocean World” (McGill University, 2016).

¹ For general information on patterns of trade and merchant networks in this region, see İnalcık, Halil, “The India Trade,” in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, ed. İnalcık, Halil and Quataert, Donald (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 349–55Google Scholar; Suraiya Faroqhi, “Trade: Regional, Inter-Regional and International,” in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, 524–25; Matthee, Rudi et al. , The Monetary History of Iran: From the Safavids to the Qajars (London: I.B.Tauris, 2013)Google Scholar; Khoury, Dina Rizk, State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul 1540–1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 33–37Google Scholar; Abdullah, Thabit, Merchants, Mamluks, and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Basra (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2001), 57–82Google Scholar; and Fattah, Hala, The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745–1900 (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1997), 63–90Google Scholar.

² Faroqhi, Suraiya, Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans, 1517–1683 (London: I.B.Tauris, 1994), 135–39Google Scholar, 144; Nakash, Yitzhak, The Shiʿis of Iraq (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), 163–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 167; Ateş, Sabri, “Bones of Contention: Corpse Traffic and Ottoman-Iranian Rivalry in Nineteenth-Century Iraq,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 30 (2010): 512–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ On the geography of this region as it pertains to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, see Ionides, M.G., The Régime of the Rivers, Euphrates and Tigris (London: Spon, 1937)Google Scholar.

⁴ On geopolitical conflicts arising out of competing economic interests, see İnalcık, “The India Trade,” 335–40; Casale, Giancarlo, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 84–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Cole, Camille Lyans, “Precarious Empires: A Social and Environmental History of Steam Navigation on the Tigris,” Journal of Social History 50 (2016): 74–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the geopolitical dimensions of sectarianism, see Çetinsaya, Gökhan, The Ottoman Administration of Iraq, 1890–1908 (London: Routledge, 2006), 99–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Deringil, Selim, “The Struggle against Shiism in Hamidian Iraq: A Study in Ottoman Counter-Propaganda,” Die Welt des Islams 30 (1990): 45–62Google Scholar. For an overview of Ottoman–Persian conflicts in this frontier region, see Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh, Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946 (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1999), 23–30Google Scholar; and Ateş, Sabri, The Ottoman–Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ Husain, Faisal, “In the Bellies of the Marshes: Water and Power in the Countryside of Ottoman Baghdad,” Environmental History 19 (2014): 638–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Husain, , “Changes in the Euphrates River: Ecology and Politics in a Rural Ottoman Periphery, 1687–1702,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 47 (2016): 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ Ateş, The Ottoman–Iranian Borderlands, 63–66.

⁷ Çetinsaya, Ottoman Administration of Iraq, 128; Anscombe, Frederick F., The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 26–42Google Scholar; Kurşun, Zekeriya, The Ottomans in Qatar: A History of Anglo-Ottoman Conflicts in the Persian Gulf (Istanbul: ISIS, 2002), 49–63Google Scholar.

⁸ Ateş, The Ottoman–Iranian Borderlands, 229–35.

⁹ For examples of late Ottoman expansionist efforts in Africa and Yemen, see Kuehn, Thomas, Empire, Islam, and the Politics of Difference: Ottoman Rule in Yemen, 1849–1919 (Leiden: Brill, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Minawi, Mostafa, The Ottoman Scramble for Africa: Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2016)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ For the history of cholera and plague during the 19th and 20th centuries, see Hamlin, Christopher, Cholera: A Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press)Google Scholar; and Echenberg, Myron, Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894–1901 (New York: New York University Press, 2007)Google Scholar. For case studies from the Ottoman Empire, see Ayar, Mesut, Osmanlı Devletinde Kolera: İstanbul Örneği (1882–1895) (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2007)Google Scholar; Low, Michael Christopher, “Empire and Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam under British Surveillance, 1865–1908,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40 (2008): 269–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Low, “Ottoman Infrastructures of the Saudi Hydro-State: The Technopolitics of Pilgrimage and Potable Water in the Hijaz,” Comparatives Studies in Society and History 57 (2015): 929–74; Gülden Sarıyıldız, Hicaz Karantina Teşkilatı, 1865–1914 (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1996); Robarts, Andrew, Migration and Disease in the Black Sea Region: Ottoman-Russian Relations in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (London: Bloomsbury, 2017)Google Scholar; and Panzac, Daniel, La Peste dans L'Empire Ottoman, 1700–1850 (Leuven: Éditions Peeters, 1985)Google Scholar. On the usefulness of considering epidemiological factors for understanding wider geopolitical developments, see McNeill, John Robert, Mosquito Empires: Ecology and War in the Great Caribbean, 1620–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Aaron Shakow, “Marks of Contagion: The Plague, the Bourse, the Word and the Law in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1720–1762” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2009).

¹¹ Ateş, “Bones of Contention”; Bulmuş, Birsen, Plague, Quarantines and Geopolitics in the Ottoman Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012), 155–160Google Scholar; Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh, “‘City of the Dead’: The Frontier Polemics of Quarantines in the Ottoman Empire and Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 18 (1998): 51–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Samuel Dolbee, “The Locust and the Starling: People, Insects, and Disease in the Late Ottoman Jazira and After, 1860–1940” (PhD diss., New York University, 2017), 209–57. On Ottoman public health efforts in 19th-century Baghdad, see Kurt, Burcu, “Osmanlı Doğu Sınırında Kamu Sağlığı ve Siyaset: 19. Yüzyıl Bağdad’ında Hastaneler,” in Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet'e Salgın Hastalıklar ve Kamu Sağlığı, ed. Kurt, Burcu and Yaşayanlar, İsmail (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı, 2017), 143–68Google Scholar.

¹² On the concept of legibility and its relationship to disease prevention, see Scott, James C., Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 1–8, 77Google Scholar.

¹³ Minawi, The Ottoman Scramble, 17 and conclusion.

¹⁴ For an overview of major epidemics in the Ottoman Empire before the 19th century, see Panzac, La Peste; Varlık, Nükhet, Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World: The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and White, Sam, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 85–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Varlık, Plague and Empire, 177–78, 198, 202.

¹⁶ These outbreaks occurred in 1674–75, 1739–40, and 1773–74. See al-ʿUmari, Yasin, Ghayat al-Maram fi Tarikh Mahasin Baghdad Dar al-Salam, ed. al-Basri, ʿAli Yusuf (Baghdad: Dar Manshurat al-Basri, 1968), 320–21Google Scholar. Al-ʿUmari uses the word ṭāʿun when discussing these outbreaks. On the complications arising from translating the word ṭāʿun as “plague,” see Varlık, Plague and Empire, 11–12; and White, The Climate of Rebellion, 86.

¹⁷ On malaria as a problem in Basra, see Abdullah, Merchants, Mamluks, and Murder, 13. For a sampling of accounts from European officials, travelers, and merchants, see Teixiera, Pedro, The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, trans. Sinclair, William F. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1902), 29Google Scholar; Parsons, Abraham, Travels in Asia and Africa (London: Longman, Hurts, Rees, and Orme, Paternoster-Row, 1808), 157Google Scholar; Sestini, Domenico, Voyage de Constantinople à Bassora en 1781 par le Tigre et l'Euphrate (Paris: Dupuis, 1798), 190–91Google Scholar; British Library, India Office Records, London, United Kingdom (hereafter IOR)/G/29/21, La Touche to Board of Control, 1 July 1780; and IOR/G/29/23, Jones to Manesty, 1 November 1793. On continuity and change in state approaches to malaria during the late Ottoman period and early Turkish Republic, see Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, , “Governing Population, Public Health, and Malaria in the Early Turkish Republic,” Journal of Historical Geography 37 (2011): 470–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Hamlin, Cholera, 10; Hays, J. N., Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 193–95Google Scholar.

¹⁹ According to J. N. Hays, cholera did not appear in the Gulf until 1822. See Hays, Epidemics and Pandemics, 193. However, archival evidence from the India Office Records demonstrates that cholera arrived to the Gulf by 1821. See IOR/P/385/10, Jukes (Political Agent) to Bombay Government, 14 July 1821, pp. 5543–44; IOR/P/385/10, Jukes (Political Agent) to Bombay Government, 20 July 1821, pp. 5537; and IOR/P/385/11, Jukes (Political Agent) to Bombay Government, 1 September 1821, p. 5894.

²⁰ Salname-i Vilayet-i Basra (Basra: Basra Vilayeti Matbaası, 1318/[1900–1901]), 193–94.

²¹ White, Sam, “Rethinking Disease in Ottoman History,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010): 549–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²² ʿUthman al-Basri, Mataliʿ al-Suʿud bi-Tib Akhbar al-Wali Dawud: Tarikh al-ʿIraq wa-Najd (Beirut: al-Dar al-ʿArabiyya li-l-Mawsuʿat, 2010), 482.

²³ Resul Kerkuklü Efendi, Dehvat ül-Vüzera: Gülşen-i Hulefa Zeylidir (Baghdad: Dar al-Tibaʿa, 1246/[1830]), 351.

²⁴ Ibid., 351.

²⁵ Fraser, James B., Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and 1822 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1825), 66Google Scholar.

²⁶ These developments are described and examined in Varlık, Plague and Empire, 248–91.

²⁷ Panzac, La Peste, 446–56; Ayalon, Yaron, Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire: Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 184Google Scholar.

²⁸ A translated copy of Davud Paşa's letter can be found in IOR/P/385/17, translated letter from Davud Paşa to Bombay Government, pp. 268–70. Unfortunately, I was unable to locate Davud Paşa's original letter, which I presume to have been written in Ottoman Turkish. Although no date appears on the letter, the index for these proceedings mentions that Davud Paşa's letter was dated 1822. See, IOR/Z/P/3422, pp. 26. All quotations from this letter rely on the available translation.

²⁹ Ibid.

³⁰ Ayalon, Natural Disasters, 186.

³¹ Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley, Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), 255Google Scholar. On Georgian mamluk rule in Baghdad, see Nieuwenhuis, Tom, Politics and Society in Early Modern Iraq: Mamluk Pasha, Tribal Shaykhs and Local Rule Between 1802 and 1831 (The Hauge: Martinius Nijhoff, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lier, Thomas, Haushalte and Haushaltspolitik in Bagdad, 1704–1831 (Würzburg: Erlong Verlag, 2004)Google Scholar.

³² Despite my best efforts, I was unable to locate in the Prime Ministry's Ottoman Archives any correspondence between the Ottoman central government and Davud Paşa on the subject of the cholera crisis at Basra. This, of course, does not mean that such correspondence does not exist.

³³ Ayar, Osmanlı Devletinde Kolera, 10n30.

³⁴ On the ways in which the Ottoman experience with plague can help us rethink conventional periodizations of the three known plague pandemics, see Varlık, Nükhet, “New Science and Old Sources: Why the Ottoman Experience of Plague Matters,” The Medieval Globe 1 (2014): 193–227Google Scholar.

³⁵ IOR/P/386/40, No. 44, Bombay Castle to Medical Board, 9 September 1828.

³⁶ Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi (Prime Ministry's Ottoman Archive), Istanbul, Turkey (hereafter BOA), HAT 462/22642A, 29 Z 1246/10 June 1831; and BOA, HAT 395/20864R, 7 M 1247/18 June 1831.

³⁷ BOA, HAT 392/20794, 5 L 1247/8 March 1832; and BOA, HAT 393/20825, 25 Za 1247/26 April 1832.

³⁸ Centre des Archives Diplomatiques de Nantes, Nantes, France (hereafter CADN), Constantinople D, Baghdad vol. 9, No. 11, Beuscher to Varenne, 26 April 1832.

³⁹ Ayalon, Natural Disasters, 187.

⁴⁰ The Anglo-Turkish Convention (or Treaty of Balta Limanı) (1838), which the Ottoman Empire signed in exchange for British support in the Ottoman central government's struggle against the Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mehmed Ali Paşa, eliminated state monopolies and reduced tariffs for European merchants. For more on the treaty and its importance in late Ottoman history, see Donald Quataert, “Overview of the Nineteenth Century,” in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, 764.

⁴¹ On the epidemiological and economic concerns informing the Ottoman Empire's decision to adopt quarantines, see Bulmuş, Plague, 97–129.

⁴² Ibid., 4, 99.

⁴³ Ibid., 130–51. On 19th-century European debates concerning the efficacy of quarantines and their hinderance to the free flow of commerce, see Ackerknecht, Erwin H., “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867,” International Journal of Epidemiology 38 (2009): 7–21CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁴⁴ Ayalon, Natural Disasters, 186–92.

⁴⁵ The National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom (hereafter TNA), FO 195/334, No. 3, Rawlinson to Canning, 16 January 1849.

⁴⁶ TNA, 195/237, No. 52, Rawlinson to Wellesley, 30 September 1846.

⁴⁷ TNA, FO 195/272, No. 70, Kemball to Cowley, 15 September 1847; BOA, I.DH 157/6174, 14 Za 1263/34 October 1847.

⁴⁸ TNA, FO 195/367, No. 18, Kemball to Canning, 2 July 1851; BOA, I.DH 238/14410, 22 L 1267/20 August 1851; TNA, FO 195/367, No. 26, Kemball to Canning, 23 September 1851.

⁴⁹ TNA, FO 195/237, No. 60, Rawlinson to Wellesley, 25 November 1846.

⁵⁰ Salname-i Nezaret-i Hariciye, 1318 (Istanbul: Matbaa-ı Osmaniye, 1318/[1900–1901]), 454.

⁵¹ BOA, A.DVN.MHM 5A/71, 29 C 1264/2 June 1848.

⁵² For a history of the international sanitary conferences and Ottoman participation, see Bulmuş, Plague, 130–74; Baldwin, Peter, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Huber, Valeska, “The Unification of the Globe by Disease? The International Sanitary Conferences on Cholera, 1851–1894,” The Historical Journal 49 (2006): 453–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵³ Minisèstere des Affaires Étrangères, Procès-Verbaux de la Conférence Sanitaire Internationale Ouverte a Paris le 27 Juillet 1851 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1852), No. 14: 4–5 (4 October 1851).

⁵⁴ Ibid., 14: 5–6.

⁵⁵ CADN, Constantinople D, Baghdad, vol. 13, No. 70, Guerrier to de La Cour, 8 October 1853; TNA, FO 195/521, No. 32, Kemball to Redcliffe, 11 October 1856.

⁵⁶ Salname-i Nezaret-i Hariciye, 464.

⁵⁷ Harrison, Mark, Contagion: How Commerce Has Spread Disease (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2012), 139–44Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ On the history of Ottoman quarantine procedures in the Red Sea region, see Sarıyıldız, Gülden and Macar, Oya Dağlar, “Cholera, Pilgrimage, and International Politics of Sanitation: The Quarantine State on the Island of Kamaran,” in Plague and Contagion in the Islamic Mediterranean, ed. Varlık, Nükhet (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Arch Humanities Press, 2017), 243–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁹ [Ottoman Empire], Procès-Verbaux de la Conférence Sanitaire Internationale ouverte a Constantinople le 13 Février 1866, vol. 1 (Constantinople [Istanbul]: Imprimerie Centrale, 1866), No. 14: 16–17 (9 June 1866); [Ottoman Empire], Procès-Verbaux de la Conférence Sanitaire Internationale ouverte a Constantinople, vol. 1, No. 15: 6 (11 June 1866). The geopolitical implications of this phenomenon are explored in Ateş, “Bones of Contention.”

⁶⁰ [Ottoman Empire], Procès-Verbaux de la Conférence Sanitaire Internationale ouverte a Constantinople, vol. 1, No. 34: 5–6 (30 August 1866). For more on Qajar approaches to public health and disease prevention, see Hormoz Ebrahimnejad, Medicine, Public Health and the Qajar State: Patterns of Medical Modernization in Nineteenth-Century Iran (Leiden: Brill, 2004); and Willem Floor, Public Health in Qajar Iran (Washington, D.C.: Mage Publishers, 2004).

⁶¹ [Ottoman Empire], Procès-Verbaux de la Conférence Sanitaire Internationale ouverte a Constantinople, vol. 1, No. 35: 3–4 (8 September 1866).

⁶² Ibid., No. 35: 5 (8 September 1866).

⁶³ TNA, FO 195/1371, telegram, no number, Plowden to Dickson, 17 October 1881.

⁶⁴ TNA, FO 195/1409, No. 1, Plowden to the Earl of Dufferin, 4 January 1882.

⁶⁵ TNA, FO 195/1445, No. 46, Tweedie to Wyndham, 5 September 1883.

⁶⁶ TNA, FO 195/1445, No. 55, Tweedie to the Earl of Dufferin, 22 November 1883.

⁶⁷ TNA, FO 195/1478, No. 25, Plowden to the Earl of Dufferin, 10 January 1884.

⁶⁸ TNA, FO 195/1579, No. 41/5, Bowman to White, 17 January 1887.

⁶⁹ TNA, FO 195/1611, No. 464/77, Talbot to White, 30 June 1888.

⁷⁰ Onley, James, The Arabian Frontier of the British Raj: Merchants, Rulers, and the British in the Nineteenth-Century Gulf (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 29–38Google Scholar; Mathew, Johan, Margins of the Market: Trafficking and Capitalism across the Arabian Sea (Oakland, Calif.: University of California Press, 2016), 82–112Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Bulmuş, Plague, 152.

⁷² For examples from the Hijaz, see Low, “Ottoman Infrastructures”; and Low, “The Mechanics of Mecca: The Technopolitics of the Late Ottoman Hijaz and the Colonial Hajj” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2015), 214–28. Samuel Dolbee has also demonstrated that, while the Ottoman state embraced the bacteriological revolution, notions regarding the role of miasma in spreading diseases continued to hold sway in certain parts of the Ottoman Empire. Dolbee, “The Locust and the Starling,” 230–24.

⁷³ For the Ottomans’ use of quarantines in specific contexts, see Bulmuş, Plague, 97–151; Low, “The Mechanics of Mecca,” 158–229; Sarıyıldız, Hicaz Karantina; Robarts, Migration and Disease, 109–38; and Mikhail, Alan, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 230–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁴ Harrison, Mark, Disease and the Modern World: 1500 to the Present Day (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 102Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ On the importance of studying diseases as part of broader environmental factors, see Mikhail, Alan, “The Nature of Plague in Late Eighteenth-Century Egypt,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82 (2008): 249–75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁷⁶ Mehmed Hurşid [Paşa], Seyâhatnâme-i Hudûd, ed. Alaattin Eser (Istanbul: Simurg Kitapcılık ve Yayıncılık, 1997), 8.

⁷⁷ Gratien, Chris, “The Ottoman Quagmire: Malaria, Swamps, and Settlement in the Late Ottoman Mediterranean,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 49 (2017): 583–604CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁸ BOA, DH.MKT 1650/17, 24 Z 1306/21 August 1889.

⁷⁹ BOA, DH.MKT 1657/14, 19 M 1307/15 September 1889; BOA, DH.MKT 1666/78, 18 S 130714 October 1889; BOA, DH.MKT 1670/54, 3 Ra 1307/28 October 1889; BOA, DH.MKT 1672/21, 12 Ra 1307/6 November 1889; BOA, DH.MKT 1678/40, 8 R 1307/2 December 1889.

⁸⁰ TNA, FO 195/1467, No. 457/49, Tweedie to White, 22 August 1889.

⁸¹ Harrison, Contagion, 172

⁸² Şerifüddin bin Arif, Basra Şehri Hakkında Topografya-ı Tıbbi (Istanbul: Mahmud Bey Matbaası, 1309/[1891–92]), 2. On the Ottoman Medical Society, see Karacaoğlu, Emre, “Cemiyet-i Tıbbiye-i Osmaniye Toplantısında Sunulan Bir Tıp Tarihi Makalesi: Terakkiyat-i Tıbbiye,” Türk Klinikleri: Tıp Etiği-Hukuku-Tarihi 24 (2016): 44–54Google Scholar.

⁸³ Arif, Basra Şehri, 14

⁸⁴ Ibid., 33

⁸⁵ Apparently, portions of this report were published earlier in the Ottoman periodical Tercüman-ı Hakikat. Ibid., 14–15.

⁸⁶ Basra Vilayeti Salnamesi (Basra: Basra Matbaası, 1309/[1891–92]), 104–57.

⁸⁷ Ibid., 115.

⁸⁸ Ibid., 118.

⁸⁹ TNA, FO 195/1978, No. 379/33, Mockler to Ford, 31 May 1893; TNA, FO 195/1979, No. 589/77, Mockler to Ford, 28 August 1893.

⁹⁰ BOA, BEO 349/26129, 15 Kanunusani 1309 / 27 January 1894.

⁹¹ On Mehmed Şakir's life and career, see Mehmed Şakir Bey, Halife II. Abdülhamid'in Hac Siyaseti, ed. Gülden Sarıyıldız (Istanbul: Timas, 2009), 9–17.

⁹² Mehmed Şakir, “Hindistan Kolerası ve Irak’ın Islahat-ı Sıhhiyesi,” İstanbul Üniversitesi Nadir Eserler Kütüphanesi (hereafter İÜNEK), Ms. No. TY 5071, 255–57

⁹³ Ibid., 265.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 434.

⁹⁵ Ibid., 438–40.

⁹⁶ Ibid., 220–28.

⁹⁷ BOA, A.MKT.MHM 579/8, Ministry of Health to Grand Vizier, 6 Ca 1317 / 30 September 1899.

⁹⁸ BOA, I.SH 4/29, 27 R 1322 / 13 July 1904. Hamdi Aziz, Suriye Kıtʿasıyla Zor Sancağı ve Hıtta-ı İrakiye'de Kolera İstila’âtı, 1318 ila 1320 (Baghdad, 1321/[1905–6]), 2. Internal evidence in the report itself suggests that the publication date of 1321 should be treated as a Rumi date.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 11–13, 28–37.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 15–16

¹⁰¹ On the pandemic's effects on Chinese society, see Benedict, Carol, Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹⁰² A developed literature exists on the unsettling effects of plague's appearance in British India and the global panic that they created. See Arnold, David, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan, “Plague Panic and Epidemic Politics in India, 1896–1914,” in Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence, ed. Ranger, Terence and Slack, Paul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 204–6Google Scholar; and Catanach, I. J., “The ‘Globalization’ of Disease? India and the Plague,” Journal of World History 12 (2001): 131–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

¹⁰³ Harrison, Contagion, 140–41.

¹⁰⁴ Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Conférence Sanitaire Internationale de Venise, 16 Février-19 Mars 1897: Procès-Verbaux (Rome: Forzani et Imprimeurs du Sénat, 1897), 42.

¹⁰⁵ TNA, FO 195/1935, Enclosure, Dr. Lubicz to Mockler, 5 October 1896 in No. 468/84, Mockler to Currie, 6 October 1896.

¹⁰⁶ BOA, A.MKT.MHM 573/14, Office of Grand Vizier to Baghdad and Basra, 4 Kanununuevvel 1312/16 December 1896.

¹⁰⁷ BOA, A.MKT.MHM 573/14, Office of Grand Vizier to various ministries, 19 Kanunuevvel 1312/31 December 1896.

¹⁰⁸ BOA, A.MKT.MHM 573/14, Office of Grand Vizier to Ministry of Health, 9 Kanunusani 1312/ 25 January 1897.

¹⁰⁹ Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Conférence Sanitaire Internationale de Venise, 334.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., 385.

¹¹¹ Ibid. For Ottoman efforts to establish a greater presence at Faw, see Çetinsaya, Ottoman Administration of Iraq, 130–36.

¹¹² Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Conférence Sanitaire Internationale de Venise, 246.

¹¹³ Ibid., 212.

¹¹⁴ BOA, I.SH 3/15, 21 Zilkade 1316/2 April 1899; TNA, FO 195/2050, No. 28, Dickson to O'Conor, 24 March 1899.

¹¹⁵ TNA, FO 195/2020, No. 182/25, Cowler to Currie, 25 April 1898.

¹¹⁶ TNA, FO 195/2020, No. 590/90, Mendeville to O'Conor, 24 November 1898.

¹¹⁷ TNA, FO 195/2020, No. 342/52, Ramsay to Bunsen, 20 July 1898.

¹¹⁸ TNA, FO 195/2020, No. 214/30, Cowler to Currie, 11 May 1898.

¹¹⁹ TNA, FO 195/2050, No. 55, Dickson to O'Conor, 12 May 1899.

¹²⁰ Anscombe, The Ottoman Gulf, 1.

¹²¹ Bulumuş, Plague, 156.

¹²² Izzeddine, Cassim, La Défense Sanitaire dans le Golfe Persique (Paris: A Maloine, 1912), 5–6, 37Google Scholar.

¹²³ Onley, The Arabian Frontier, 189–90.