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The Mamluk Conception of the Sultanate

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 April 2009

Amalia Levanoni
Amalia Levanoni
Affiliation:
Senior Lecturer at the Department of Middle Eastern History, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
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Extract

During their rule in Egypt and Syria (1250–1517), the Mamluks showed a certain ambiguity in their attitude toward the sultanate including its rules of succession and the ruler's source of power. This ambiguity has led to a variety of opinions about the nature of the Mamluk Sultanate in scholarly works on Mamluk history. David Ayalon implies, in “The Circassians in the Mamluk Kingdom,” that the principle of heredity was recognized to various degrees in the Mamluk state, although it was weak during the Bahri period and altogether abandoned during the Circassian period. In “From Ayyubids to Mamluks,” Ayalon confirms that when the Mamluks came to power they had not “ever dreamt of creating a non-hereditary sultan's office” because most of the Bahri period was ruled by the Qalaʾunid dynasty. When nonhereditary rule came about, at least in the Bahri period, it was without any form of planning. In his “Mamluk Military Aristocracy: A Non-Hereditary Nobility,” Ayalon stresses that even during pre- and post-Qalaʾunid times the sultan's office was only nonhereditary to a certain extent and that “throughout the history of the Mamluk Sultanate there is not the slightest mention of the non-hereditary character of the sultan's office, or of the intention of turning it into such.”

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Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 26 , Issue 3 , August 1994 , pp. 373 - 392
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

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References

NOTES

Author's note: I thank Professor Nehemia Levtzion, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Professor P. J. Vatikiotis, St. Antony's College, Oxford, for their helpful comments during the preparation of this paper.

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30 Nujūm, 7:101.

31 Sīrat al-Ẓāhir, 66–68; al-Yūnīnī, 1:370.

32 Zubda, fol. 40b–41a.

33 Tuḥfa, fol. 70b–71a; Sīrat al-Ẓāhir, 69; Nujūm, 7:100.

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42 Nujūm, 8:49.

43 Al-Nuwayrī, 2n, fol. 93b–94a; Nujūm, 8:106; al-Ṣuqāʿī, 132; Jawāhir al-sulūk, fol. 69b, 94b–95a.

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45 Ibn Khaldūn, 907–8; al-Nuwayrī, 20, fol. 45b; Zettersteen, Beiträge, 140; Zubda, fol. 70a–b; Sulūk, 1:418, 656, 658, 666, 669, 748–49.

46 Nujūm, 8:263.

47 Ibid., 237.

48 Levtzion, N., “Hakitōt ba-Islām,” (Sects in Islam) in Prakim be-Toldot ha-ʿAravim ve-ha-Islam (Chapters in the History of the Arabs and Islam), ed. Lazarus-Yafeh, Hava (Tel Aviv, 1968), 178;.Google ScholarI Gold-ziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology (Princeton, N.J., 1981), 172Google Scholar; Cahen, CI., “The Body Politic,” in Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, ed. Grunebaum, G. E. von (Chicago, 1955), 137Google Scholar; Watt, M. W., Islamic Political Thought (Edinburgh, 1968), 57Google Scholar; Lambton, A. K. S., “Islamic Political Thought,” in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Bosworth, C. E. (Oxford, 1974), 406.Google Scholar

49 Goldziher, Islamic Theology, 81–83.

50 Ibn Iyās, 1:290. For similar cases, see Ibid., 3:48, 133; Nujūm, 14:232, 373; 16:242, 243, 248, 394; Sulūk, 4:608, 890; Aḥmad, Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bashīr ibn, Shuhba, Ibn Qāḍī, al-Dhayl ʿalā taʿrīkh al-lslām (Damascus, 1977) (hereafter Ibn Qāḍī Shuhba), 86Google Scholar; Birdī, Yūsuf ibn Taghrī, Ḥawādith al-duhūrfī madā al-ayyām wa-al-shuhūr, 2 vols., ed. al-Dīn, Muḥammad Kamāl al-Dīn ʾIzz (Cairo, 1990) (hereafter Ha wādith), 2:433Google Scholar; Dāwūd, al-Jawharī ʿAlī Ibn, al-Ṣayrafī, , Nuzʾhat al-nufūs wa-al-abdān fī tawārīkh al-zamān, 3 vols., ed. Ḥabashī, Ḥasan (Dār al-Kutub, Cairo, 1971) (hereafter al-Ṣayrafī), 257–58.Google Scholar

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53 Holt, “The Mamluk Sultan,” 246–47.

54 Zubda, fol. 97a–b; al-Nuwayrī, 2n, fol. 73a; Ibn al-Furāt, 7:150; Ibn Waṣīf, fol. 69b–70a, 72a–b, 73b; Ibn Duqmāq, fol. 96a–b; al-Dīn, Shamsibn, Muḥammedal-Sakhāwī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmīʿ li-ahl al-qarn al-tāsiʿ, 12 vols. (Beirut) (hereafter Dawʾ), 3:11Google Scholar; al-Ṣayrafī, 1:36; Sulūk, 1:658; 3:474–75.

55 Al-Yūnīnī, 4:42; Tuḥfa, fol. 33a; Zubda, fol. 88b–89a, 91b–92a, 98a; Ibnal-Furāt, 7:117, 140; al-Ṣuqāʿī, 52.

56 Zubda, fol. 181b; Tuḥfa, fol. 59b; al-Nuwayrī, 2n, fol. 46a–47b; al-Ṣuqāʿī, 70; Sulūk, 1:792; Ibnal-Furāt, 8:100–101.

57 Al-Yūnīnī, 2907/E4, fol. 165a, 177b, 180b, 181a–b, 183b, 189b, 214a, 218a–b, 222b; al-Nuwayrī, 20, fol. 48a; Sulūk, 2:77; Nujūm, 9:14.

58 Al-Nuwayrī, 20, fol. 70b; see also Haarmann, “Misr”, EI 2, 7:169.

59 Al-Nuwayrī, 20, fol. lOOb–lOla.

60 Sulūk, 2:343; Nujūm, 9:99; Durar, 1:446.

61 Mufaḍḍal, , al-Faḍāʾil, Ibn Abī, al-Nahj al-sadīd wa-al-durr al-farīd fimā baʿda taʾrīkh Ibn al-ʿAmīd, ed. Kortantamer, Samira (Freiburg, 1973) (hereafter Nahj), 105.Google Scholar

62 Nujūm, 8:81.

63 Holt, “Mamluk Sultan,” 239–40.

64 Nahj, 105–6. See the use they made of this will when they deposed al-Kamil Shaʿban in 1347: Sulūk, 2:709; Nujūm, 10:134; Durar, 2:289.

65 Nujūm, 9:137, 187, 207; Manhal, Bibliothèque Nationale, ms. arabe no. 2070, fol. 173a; Sulūk, 2:714.

66 Nujūm, 9:175.

67 Haarmann, “Misr,” 170.

68 Ibid., 171.

69 The Nasiriyya took a minor part in factional strifes after al-Nasir Hasan's death (1361) and al-Ashrafiyya, al-Ashraf Shaʿban's household, was only a minor partner in the factional coalitions that deposed Barquq in 1389. The Yalbughawiyya, the household of one of al-Nasir Hasan's dominant amirs, however, dominated Mamluk factionalism during the 1370s and 1380s, and out of its ranks came the Mamluk sultan Barquq, who deposed the Qala-ʿunids. Nujūm, 11:258, 333, 334; Manhal, 3:94–95.

70 Sulūk, 2:1 AS; Nujūm, 10:187.

71 Ibn al-Furāt, 9:94.

72 A1-Kutubī, fol. 59a; Wāfī, 10:250; Bidāya, 14:192; Durar, 1:495; Nujūm, 10:18; Muḥammad ibn Ahmad al-Dhahabī, Dhuyūl al-ʿibar (al-Kuwayt, n.d.) (hereafter Dhuyūl al-ʿibar), 17:226–27; al-Shujāʿī, 134–35, 138.

73 Ibn Duqmāq, fol. 159a; al-Shujāʿī, 162–63; Sulūk, 2:593.

74 A1-Shujāʿī, 203–4.

75 Sulūk, 2:606.

76 Ibid., 2:618, 619.

77 On this body see n. 85. Sulūk, 2:751; Nujūm, 10:190.

78 Sulūk, 2:919; Ibn Duqmaq, fol. 164a.

79 Sulūk, 3:65, 82; Nujūm, 11:6.

80 al-ʿAsqalānīShihāb al-Dīn Abu al-Faḍl Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī, Ibn Ḥajar Shihāb al-Dīn Abu al-Faḍl Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī, Ibn Ḥajar, Inbāʿ al-ghumr bi-abnāʾ al-ʿumrfl al-taʾrikh, vols. 1–2 (Hayderabad, 1976) (hereafter Inbāʾ), 2:331–32;Google ScholarSulūk, 3:638; Ibn al-Furāt, 9:113.

81 A1-Shujāʿī, 175; Suluūk, 2:524–25; 4:1049, 1076–77, 1103; Nujūm, 7:329, 332; 10:314; Ibn Iyās, 2:25; 3:102–5; Khiṭaṭ, 2:183; Ayalon, “Mamluk Army,” pt. 1, 211.

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83 See, for example, Sulūk, 2:560, 562, 568–70, 577, 580, 582, 590, 593–94, 598–99, 617–19, 677–78, 680, 713–15, 729, 735–37, 743–44, 822–24, 828, 841, 842, 845–47, 889–90, 919, 920; Ibid., 3:4.

84 Sulūk, 2:751, 842; Nujūm, 10:190.

85 The origins of the crisis lay in al-Nasir Muhammad's extravagance and Amir Qawsun's and Sultan al-Nasir Ahmad's emptying the treasury of money and valuables to buy supporters for their regime; al-Shujāʿī, 142–43; Sulūk, 2:473, 572, 578, 586, 618–19.

86 Al-ʿUmari mentions that the Mamluk sultan had a consulting body, al-mashūra, which consisted of aged and magnate amirs of a hundred, which indicates, later on, that the sultan of his time was al- Muhammad, Nasir: Shihāb al-Dīn Ahmad Ibn Yaḥyā Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣārfi māmālik al-amṣār, ed. Krawulsky, Dorothea (Beirut, 1986), 101, 102, 107Google Scholar; Zettersteen, Beiträge, 210; Sulūk, 2:485, 498; Khiṭaṭ, 3:339; 4:108.

87 For a definition of his function, see al-Qalqashandi, Ibn al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad, Kitāb ṣub ḥ al-a ʿ shā (Cairo, 1914) (hereafter al-Qalqashandī), 4:18Google Scholar; Ayalon, , “Mamluk Army,” pt. 3, 60–61.Google Scholar

88 Sulūk, 2:751; Nujūm, 10:190.

89 Sulūk, 2:751.

90 Ibid.; Tuḥfa, fol. 74b; Ayalon, David, “The System of Payment in Mamluk Military Society,” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 1, 1 (1960): 48–53.Google Scholar

91 Sulūk, 2:890.

92 Ayalon, “Mamluk Army,” pt. 3, 81–85.

93 A1-Qalqashandi, 81Google Scholar; al-Ẓāhirī, Ghars al-Dīn Khalīl ibn Shāhīn, Kitāb zubdat kashf al-mamālik wa-bayān al-ṭuruq wa-al-masālik (Paris, 1894) (hereafter al-Ẓāhirī), 112–13.Google Scholar On the post of al-amīr al-Kabīr, see Holt, “Mamluk Sultanate,” 55.

94 al-Ṣuyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, Ḥusn al-muḥāḍara fi akhbār Miṣr wa-al-Qāhira (Misr, 1881), 2:113; al-Ẓahirī, 112–13Google Scholar; Nujūm, 10:303.

95 Sulūk, 3:35, 43, 60–61, 65, 82, 132–33, 134; Nujūm, 10:315; 11:6.

96 Sulūk, 3:139; Nujūm, 11:47; Durar, 5:151, 213.

97 Sulūk, 3:85, 98–99, 128, 129; Durar, 5:213.

98 Sulūk, 3:19, 122–23.

99 Ibid

100 Ibid., 315, 316.

101 lnbāʾ, 1:193; al-Ẓāhirī, 27.

102 Sulūk, 3:310.

103 Ibid., 315, 316.

104 Ibid., 468, 474, 616; Nujūm, 11:289.

105 Sulūk, 3:453; Ibn Qāḍī Shuhba, 63.

106 Sulūk, 3:453–54.

107 Ibid., 316, 323.

108 Haarmann, “Misr,” 172.

109 Ḍawʾ, 2:327; 3:12, 72; 4:217; 6:168; 7:274; 10:303; Manhal, 4:274, 279, 294; 6:404; al-Ṣayrafi, 2:5, 478, 516; 3:415–16, 422; Sulūk, 4:1, 539, 572, 1043, 1045, 1080; Nujūm, 12:229, 230; 13:150; 14:103, 206; 15:102, 211; 16:61–62, 126, 156; Ibn Iyās, 1:317, 349; 2:22, 34, 64, 65–66, 263; Ḥawādith, 2:399, 461, 462; see also Irwin, Robert, “Factions in Medieval Egypt,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986): 232, 233, 234, 237.Google Scholar

110 Nujūm, 16:36, 55.

111 Ibn Iyās, 1:349; 2:10, 23, 263, 303, 305; Nujūm, 14:107, 168, 198,211,221,242; 15:103–4, 112, 222, 228, 233, 256,452–53; 16:23,45, 57, 156, 218, 247, 253, 377; al-ʿAyni, Badr al-Dīn, ʿIqdal-jumān fi tārīkh ahl al-zamān, ed. al-Qarmūṭ, ʿAbd al-Rāziq al-Ṭanṭāwī (Cairo, 1989)Google Scholar (hereafter al-ʿAynī), 117, 144, 155, 158, 162, 180, 499, 501, 512, 515; Ḥawādith, 2:414, 415; Sulūk, 4:539, 572, 601, 1050, 1053, 1056, 1066, 1078, 1080, 1086; al-Sayrafi, 2:6, 8, 494, 518, 524; 3:5, 420, 422, 442, 444, 448; Ḍawʾ, 5:127; 7:274; 10:303; Manhal, 3:259; 4:277; 6:398; Ibn Iyās, 2:10, 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 37, 38, 39, 65–66, 70–71,84,297,303.

112 Nujūm, 12:318; 13:73, 83, 134–35, 147–48.

113 Ibn Iyās, 2:348; Sulūk, 4:563.

114 See Haarmann, “Misr,” 172.

115 Nujūm, 16:244; al-Ṣayrafī, 3:420, 430, 437.

116 Nujūm, 13:206; 14:3, 168–70, 196, 198, 232; 15:256; 16:229, 234, 237, 238, 239, 306, 373; Ibn Iyās, 2:90, 257, 297, 303, 350, 368, 369, 370; 3:57, 69; al-ʿAynī, 159, 180; Ḥawādith, 2:416; Sulūk, 4:244, 569; al-Ṣayrafi, 3:5, 448; Ḍawʾ, 3:8; Manhal, 3:261–62; 4:283; 6:287; see also Irwin, “Factions,” 231.

117 On linguistic relativity, see Robertson, Sociology, 70–74.Google Scholar

118 Nujūm, 16:359. For further examples, see Ibid., 14:198, 214; 15:535; 16:369; Ibn Iyās, 2:291, 297, 303, 330, 389; 3:57, 70, 72.

119 Ibn Iyās, 2:369.

120 Al-ʿAynī, 158. See also Nujūm, 14:222; Sulūk, 4:595; al-Ṣayrafi, 2:514. For another example, see Sulūk, 4:1190–91.

121 Nujūm, 14:215.

122 Ibn Iyās, 3:84. For further examples, see Ibid., 2:330, 379, 381, 389, 390; Nujūm, 13:45, 70, 146, 149; 14:100, 207–8, 236, 239; 15:229, 236, 276–77, 302; 16:36, 48, 60, 65, 72, 258–59, 363–64, 380, 381; Ḥawādith, 2:518.

123 Nujūm, 16:279–80, 282.

124 Ibid., 14:212–13, 222–23, 327–28; 15:264–65, 327; 16:87–89; Ibn Iyās, 2:153, 335, 337, 3:80; Ḥawādith, 2:413.

125 Nujūm, 12:252, 271, 289, 304, 327; 13:56, 75, 194; 15:31; 16:59, 81, 131, 343; Ibn Iyās, 2:129–30, 353.

126 Ibn Iyās, 2:239, 240, 241, 384; Nujūm, 16:87, 91; Ḥawādith, 2:528.

127 Nujūm, 12:280, 300, 327; 14:321, 327–28, 332, 340, 356; 15:50–51, 83, 90, 228, 230, 232, 233, 397–400, 410–11, 433, 434; 16:84, 95, 96, 112, 117, 123, 125, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136–37, 138, 141, 158, 276, 288, 290, 308, 361; Ibn Iyās, 2:214, 215, 220, 226, 228, 230, 241, 245, 248, 287, 339, 342, 346; 3:33–34, 43, 54–55, 80; al-ʿAynī, 359, 628, 644, 656; Ḥawādith, 1:180–81, 266, 269, 271, 273; 2:333, 338, 448, 481, 486, 505, 517, 527, 529, 538, 568–69, 570, 586, 592–93, 595; Sulūk, 4:100, 105, 480, 551, 749, 784, 800, 804, 805, 818, 864, 930, 931, 1009, 1026, 1027, 1056, 1058, 1177; al-Sakhāwī, Muhammad Ibn -ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, al-Tibr al-masbūkfi dhayl al-sulūk (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter Tibr), 322–23; al-Ṣayrafi, 3:400, 401, 406, 433Google Scholar; Ḍawʾ, 2:329

128 On what caused or what came out of this revolt the sources contain no information; al-ʿAynī, 578; Nujūm, 15:352; Tibr, 41.

129 Nujūm, 16:94. For more instances, see Ibid., 98, 101; Ḥawādith, 2:504, 547; Ḍawʾ, 2:329.

130 Ibn Iyās, 2:347. For other examples, see Tibr, 260–61; al-Ṣayrafi, 3:279, 340, 425, 426, 433, 435–36, 440

131 Ibn Iyās, 2:239–40. For further examples, see Ibid., 106, 141, 148, 149, 151, 153, 183, 218, 219, 229, 240–41, 247, 257–58, 259, 260–61, 263, 266, 269, 296, 323, 330, 339, 341, 343, 345, 346, 351; 3:5, 6, 16, 21, 69; Nujūm, 12:196, 272, 297; 14:212, 222–23, 328, 330, 340; 15:31, 83, 264–65, 365, 410, 412–14; 16:87–88, 114, 118, 125, 131, 136–37, 139, 232, 277, 291, 296–97, 304, 320, 324, 361, 368, 387; al-ʿAynl, 159, 414, 455; Ḥawādith 2:505, 527, 548, 567; Sulūk 4:793, 1018; al-Ṣayrafī, 3:147, 157,304,305.

132 Ibn Iyās, 2:269, 277, 278–79, 322; Nujūm, 14:184–85, 190; 15:236; 16:142–43; Ḥawādith, 2:332, 410; Irwin, –Factions,– 231.

133 Nujūm, 14:213, 330, 371; 15:227, 279–80, 435; 16:100, 112, 132, 139, 362; Ḥawādith, 2:426, 431–32, 434, 437, 449, 517, 529; Sulūk, 4:480, 594, 804, 930, 1091, 1103; Tibr, 352; al-Ṣayrafī, 3:160, 178.

134 Nujūm, 15:412; 16:40, 114, 136–37, 275; Ḥawādith, 1:267–68; 2:533.

135 Nujūm, 16:147–48, 151–52, 159–60.

136 Ibid., 239.