Author's note: I am grateful to Willem Floor, Nikki Keddie, Ahmed Mansour, Ulrich Marzolph, and my anonymous readers for comments on earlier versions of this article.

¹ On the earlier printers, see Bobzin, Hartmut, “Imitation und Imagination: Bemerkungen zu einigen frühen europäischen Drücken mit Arabischen Lettern,” in Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient, ed. Marzolph, Ulrich (Dortmund, Germany: Verlag für Orientkunde, 2002)Google Scholar, and Gdoura, Wahid, Le début de l'imprimerie arabe à Istanbul et en Syrie: Evolution de l'évironnement culturel (1706–1787) (Tunis, Tunisia: Institut Supérieur de Documentation, 1985)Google Scholar. Note that the present article deals with Muslim printing and not the separate issues concerning earlier Christian printing in the Middle East.

² For the most current survey, see Hanebutt-Benz, Eva, Glass, Dagmar, and Roper, Geoffrey, eds., Middle Eastern Languages and the Print Revolution (Westhofen, Germany: WVA-Verlag Skulima, 2002)Google Scholar.

³ Mirza, Salih Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, ed. Ghulam Husayn Mirza Salih (Tehran: Nashr-e Tarikh-e Iran, 1985)Google Scholar. I have also consulted other editions (see the following) and the original manuscript (British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, Add. 24,034), particularly to clarify the orthography of personal names underlying the following historical reconstructions.

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⁹ Inkster, Ian, “Technology in World History: Cultures of Constraint and Innovation, Emulation, and Technology Transfer,” Comparative Technology Transfer and Society 5 (2007): 108–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹ Gdoura, Le début de l'imprimerie arabe à Istanbul et en Syrie, 193–96, and Johann Strauss, “Kütüp ve Resail-i Mevkute: Printing and Publishing in a Multi-Ethnic Society,” in Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy, ed. Elizabeth Özdalga (London: Routledge, 2005). When printing recommenced in Istanbul around 1830, after Müteferrika's experiment, it was through the migration and transnational collaboration of the Marseilles cousins Henri Cayol (1805–65) and Jacques Cayol. See Zellich, Grégoire, Notice historique sur la lithographie et sur les origines de son introduction en Turquie (Constantinople: A. Zellich Fils, 1895)Google Scholar.

¹² The problem was perennial: an Armenian merchant in 1843 imported a modern press from Java to New Julfa in Iran, where it then lay redundant in the Vanak church because no one knew how to use it. Golpayigani, Husayn Mirzaʾi, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran (Tehran: Intisharat Gulshan-e Raz, 1999), 9Google Scholar.

¹³ Willem M. Floor, “Čāp,” Encyclopaedia Iranica; Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran; Ulrich Marzolph, “Persian Incunabula: A Definition and Assessment,” Gutenberg Jahrbuch (2007): 205–20; and Qasimi, Farid, Avvalinha-ye Matbuʿat-e Iran (Tehran: Nashr-e Abi, 2004)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ For summaries of Salih's career, see Ardakani, Husayn Mahbubi, “Duvvumin Karvan-e Marifat,” Yaghma 18 (1965)Google Scholar; idem, Tarikh-e Muʾassasat-e Tamaddoni-ye Jadid dar Iran, 3 vols. (Tehran: Anjuman-e Danishjuyan-e Danishgah-e Tihran, 1975), 1:176–79, 222–24; and Qasimi, Avvalinha-ye Matbuʿat-e Iran, 9–141.

¹⁵ Qasimi, ibid., 15.

¹⁶ Bodleian Library, Ouseley ms 159, colophon dated 1812. The travelogue is also printed in Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi.

¹⁷ The original manuscript bears two titles—Suʾal u Jawab (Questions and Answers) and Guftagu-ye Farsi (Persian Conversation)—and is held at the Bodleian Library (Ouseley ms 390).

¹⁸ Price, William, Persian Dialogues, Composed for the Author by Mirza Sauli, of Shiraz (Worcester, U.K.: s.n., 1822)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Storey, C. A., “The Beginnings of Persian Printing in India,” in Oriental Studies in Honour of Cursetji Erachji Pavry, ed. Pavry, J. D. Cursetji (London: Oxford University Press, 1933)Google Scholar.

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²² On these ambitions, see ibid., 318–20. On the poor state of science, see Turner, G. L. E., “Experimental Science in Early Nineteenth-Century Oxford,” History of Universities 8 (1989): 117–35Google Scholar.

²³ “The Persian Princes,” The Times, 7 December 1818, 3.

²⁴ Gregory, Olinthus, Letters to a Friend, on the Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Religion (London: H. G. Bohn, 1851)Google Scholar.

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²⁶ Ibid., 169–70.

²⁷ “John Bisset,” Papers of Freddie Percy (SM/17/1), Whitgift School Archives, Croydon. Thanks to the Whitgift Archivist, William G. Wood, for providing access.

²⁸ Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 169–70, 311–13.

²⁹ F.O. 60/23 (Public Record Office, London).

³⁰ Nile Green, “The Development of Arabic-Script Typography in Georgian Britain,” Printing History n.s. 5 (2009), and Storey, “The Beginnings of Persian Printing in India.”

³¹ Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society for the Year 1816 (London: Tilling & Hughes, 1816), 10, 39, 79.

³² Canton, William, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 5 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1904–10), 1:64Google Scholar, and Green, “The Development of Arabic-Script Typography in Georgian Britain.”

³³ “Account of the Rev. Mr. Lee,” Oxford University and City Herald, 26 September 1818, back page: “Mr. Lee has moreover made a new fount of letter for Hindostanee [i.e., Urdu] and Persian printing.” On the meetings, Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 350–52.

³⁴ Shirazi, ibid., 167–68. On a similar collaboration, see Fisher, Michael H., “Persian Professor in Britain: Mirza Muhammad Ibrahim at the East India Company's College, 1826–44,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 21 (2001): 24–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad, Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Historiography (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Mathews's Bristol Guide; Being a Complete Ancient and Modern History of the City of Bristol, the Hotwells and Clifton (Bristol, U.K.: printed and sold by Joseph Mathews and sold by the booksellers, 1819), 94. For Salih's tour of Bristol's glass, soap, and brass factories, see Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 334–35; elsewhere, 207–209.

³⁶ Green, Nile, “Paper Modernity? Notes on an Iranian Industrial Tour, 1818,” Iran: Journal of Persian Studies 46 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁸ Ibid., 353, 355 (dāns); Shahidi, Humayun, ed., Guzarish-e Safar-e Mirza Salih Shirazi (Kazaruni) (Tehran: Rah-e Naw, 1983)Google Scholar, 369 (vāns); Safarnama-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, ed. Ismaʿil-e Raʾin (Tehran: Ruzan, 1968), 375 (dāns). Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 10–11, quotes two versions of the name (vāls and vāns).

³⁹ Brown, Philip A. H., London Publishers and Printers: A Tentative List, c. 1800–1870 (London: British Museum, 1961)Google Scholar, and Todd, William B., A Directory of Printers and Others in Allied Trades, London and Vicinity 1800–1840 (London: Printing Historical Society, 1972)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ The ta was variously read as a lam or nūn.

⁴¹ Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:64.

⁴² On Watts, see Reed, Talbot Baines, A History of the Old English Letter Foundries (London: Eliot Stock, 1887), 362–63Google Scholar.

⁴³ Jenkins, David E., The Life of the Rev. Thomas Charles, B.A., of Bala, 3 vols. (Denbigh, U.K.: Llewelyn Jenkins, 1908), 3:68Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Lee, Alice M., A Scholar of a Past Generation: A Brief Memoir of Samuel Lee, by his Daughter (London: Seely and Co. Limited, 1896)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Oriental and Other Types in 67 Languages or Dialects, Principally Prepared by R. Watts and Now in Use in W. M. Watts's Office (London: W. M. Watts, 1851).

⁴⁶ D. N. Griffiths, “Prayer-Book Translations in the Nineteenth Century,” The Library, sixth series, 6, 1 (1984): 3, 15.

⁴⁷ The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ; Translated into the Hindoostanee Language from the Original Greek by H. Martyn; and Afterwards Carefully Revised with the Assistance of Mirza Fitrit and Other Learned Natives (London: printed by Richard Watts for the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1819).

⁴⁸ On Lee's involvement, see Darlow, T. H. and Moule, H. F., Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 vols. (London: The Bible House, 1903–1911), 2:744Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Ibid., 2:69–70.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 2:69. Kitab al-Ahd al-Jadid, yaʿni, Injil al-Muqaddas, li-Rabbina Yasuʿ al-Masih (London: Richard Watts, 1821).

⁵¹ Darlow and Moule, Historical Catalogue, 2:1204.

⁵² Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 10; Thirteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society for the Year 1817 (London: Tilling & Hughes, 1817), 338.

⁵³ For superlative detail, see Rummonds, Richard-Gabriel, Nineteenth-Century Printing Practices and the Iron Handpress, 2 vols. (London: British Library, 2004)Google Scholar. On operating imported handpresses in Iran, see Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 12–13.

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⁵⁶ On Watts's similar reliance on professor Richard Porson (1759–1808) of Cambridge for the original calligraphy of his Greek type, see Bowman, J. H., Greek Printing Types in Britain in the Nineteenth Century: A Catalogue (Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 1992), 47Google Scholar.

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⁵⁹ Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 345.

⁶⁰ For statistical data, see Green, “Development of Arabic-Script Typography.”

⁶¹ Thirteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 338.

⁶² Leigh's New Picture of London (London: Samuel Leigh, 1819).

⁶³ Howsam, Cheap Bibles.

⁶⁴ Roper, “Beginnings of Arabic Printing by the ABCFM.”

⁶⁵ Jeremy, David J., Transatlantic Industrial Revolution: The Diffusion of Textile Technologies between Britain and America, 1790–1830s (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

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⁶⁷ Duncan, John M., Travels through Part of the United States and Canada in 1818 and 1819, 2 vols. (Glasgow, Scotland: University Press, 1823), 1:201Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Duncan, Travels through Part of the United States and Canada, 1:201.

⁶⁹ Lipton, Ethan B. and Sprenger, Michael A., eds., The Eagle Soars: The Story of the Columbian Press (Los Angeles: California State University, 1976)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Based on portable presses available in London in 1819: Rummonds, Nineteenth-Century Printing Practices, 2:859.

⁷¹ McKenzie, Don F., “The Sociology of a Text: Oral Culture, Literacy and Print in Early New Zealand,” in The Social History of Language, ed. Burke, Peter and Porter, Roy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987)Google Scholar.

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⁷³ Reported in Caledonian Mercury (19 April 1819), Christian Observer and Advocate, 1819, 262–64, and Missionary Register for 1819, 180–82. Clymer's press was valued at £100.

⁷⁴ Clair, Colin, A History of Printing in Britain (London: Cassell, 1965)Google Scholar, 210–18, and Tom Mole, “Stanhope Press,” The Literary Encyclopedia, Literary Dictionary Company, 2002, http://www.litencyc.com (accessed 1 January 2008).

⁷⁵ “Account of the Rev. Mr. Lee,” Oxford University and City Herald (26 September 1818), back page: “Mr. Lee has in hand a new translation of the Old Testament into Persian, in conjunction with Mirza Khaleel.”

⁷⁶ Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 10. On Jaʿfar's translations in Saint Petersburg in the mid-1820s, also with Ouseley and Lee's collaboration, see Bullen, George, Catalogue of the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society (London: Reed and Pardon, 1857), 5, 80Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Roberts, William, Memoirs of the Life of Hannah More, 2 vols. (London: R. B. Seeley & W. Burnside, 1836), 246Google Scholar, based on More's own diary. For Salih's version and confirmation of receiving Practical Piety (the title transcribed from the English), see Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 331–32.

⁷⁸ Hashimi, Muhammad Sadr-e, Tarikh-e Jaraʾid va Majallat-e Iran, 4 vols. (Isfahan, Iran: Intisharat-e Kamal, 1984–85)Google Scholar, and Qasimi, Avvalinha-ye Matbuʿat-e Iran, especially Chapter 1.

⁷⁹ An early copy of Salih's subsequent newspaper, Akhbar-e Vaqaʾiʿ (Current News), was published in “Persian Newspaper and Translation,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 5 (1839): 355–71. Also Hashimi Tarikh-e Jaraʾid, 1:2.

⁸⁰ Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 352. On London's newspaper presses as seen in 1887 by the Iranian Hajji Pirzada (d. 1903), see Safarnama-ye Hajji Muhammad ʿAli Pirzada, 1303–1306, ed. Haiz Farmanfarmaʾiyan (Tehran: Danishgah-e Tihran, 1963–65), 301–302.

⁸¹ Salih and/or his companions featured in The Times on 29 September 1818, 7 December 1818, and 18 January 1823. In The Times alone, articles—often frivolous—on Abu al-Hasan appeared on 21 and 30 December 1809, 12 and 18 January 1810, 23 February 1810, 24 and 29 March 1810, 27 April 1819, 1 and 24 May 1819, and 1 and 10 June 1819. For Abu al-Hasan's own exasperated observations on England's newspapers, see Cloake, M. M., ed. and trans., A Persian at the Court of King George 1809–10: The Journal of Mirza Abu'l Hassan Khan (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988), 83, 248, 253Google Scholar.

⁸² On English newspapers and the evolution of a “public opinion,” see Barker, Hannah, Newspapers, Politics and English Society, 1695–1855 (Harlow, U.K.: Longman, 2000)Google Scholar, especially 196–205 on Salih's period.

⁸³ On Salih's role as “press-secretary” and munshī, respectively, see Qasimi, Farid, Sarguzasht-e Matbuʾat-e Iran: Ruzgar-e Muhammad Shah va Nasir al-Din Shah, 2 vols. (Tehran: Vizarat-e Farhang va Irshad-e Islami, 2001)Google Scholar, and Document 4 in Qaziha, Fatima, ed., Asnad-e Ravabit-e Iran va Rusiya dar dawran-e Fath ʿAli Shah va Muhammad Shah Qajar, 1240–1263 (1824–1848) (Tehran: Markaz-e Asnad-e Tarikh-e Diplumasi, 2001), 17–18Google Scholar. I am grateful to an anonymous reader for the latter reference.

⁸⁴ Shirazi, Majmuʿa-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 278.

⁸⁵ Browne, Edward G., The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914), 11Google Scholar; Hashimi, Tarikh-e Jaraʾid 1:3–5.

⁸⁶ “Newspaper” (1839): 355–71. This is not, as stated by previous scholars, the sole remaining copy: two further issues from Rabiʿ II 1253 (July 1837) exist as British Library, Or. Mic. 4776.

⁸⁷ “Newspaper” (1839): 359–60 (in Persian), 367–68 (in English).

⁸⁸ “Newspaper” (1839): 362 (in Persian), 369 (in English).

⁸⁹ Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 13. On the unconfirmed 1828 Gulistan, see Qasimi, Sarguzasht-e Matbuʿat-e Iran, 1:191.

⁹⁰ Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:219–22. On the early years of the Saint Petersburg agency, see Batalden, Stephen, “The BFBS Petersburg Agency and Russian Biblical Translation, 1856–1875,” in Sowing the Word: The Cultural Impact of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804–2004, ed. Batalden, Stephen K., Cann, Kathleen, and Dean, John (Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2004), 169–75Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:180, and Sixteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 149–50.

⁹² On Russia's very few early Arabic imprints, see Chauvin, Victor Charles, Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes, publiés dans l'Europe chrétienne de 1810 à 1885 (Liège, Belgium: H. Vaillant-Carmanne, 1892–1919), 412Google Scholar, and Krek, Miroslav, A Gazetteer of Arabic Printing (Weston, Mass.: privately printed, 1977), 74Google Scholar.

⁹³ Qasimi, Sarguzasht-e Matbuʿat-e Iran, 1:185.

⁹⁴ The book is probably identical to a work often described as the second book printed in Iran, the Fath-nama (Book of Conquest): see Marzolph, “Persian Incunabula.” For an original sale document dated Shavval 1232/August 1817 detailing the sale for 200 tūmān from an Aqa Nawruz to ʿAbbas Mirza of a “printing house” (mangana-khāna) with an iron wheel (charkh-e āhan), so identifying it as one of the new iron handpresses, see Werner, Christoph, An Iranian Town in Transition: A Social and Economic History of the Elites of Tabriz 1747–1848 (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2000)Google Scholar, appendix, document 4.

⁹⁵ I have consulted these books in the Royal Asiatic Society. Details of their bequest appear in Anon., “Biographical Sketch of his Late Royal Highness Abbas Mirza, Prince Royal of Persia, Hon. MRAS,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (1834): 323.

⁹⁶ Ulrich Marzolph, “Der lithographische Druck einer illustrierten persischen Prophetengeschichte (1267/1850)” in Marzolph, Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient, 86.

⁹⁷ Floor, “Čāp” and Kamran Ekbal and Lutz Richter-Bernburg, “John Cormick,” Encyclopaedia Iranica. However, Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 13, attributes the book to Muhammad ibn al-Sabur al-Khuʾi.

⁹⁸ On the ʿulamaʾ consultation, see Shahla Babazada, Tarikh-e Chap dar Iran (Tehran: Tahuri, 1999), 14–15.

⁹⁹ On Nasir al-din Shah's subsequent adoption of a censor system, see Kuhan, Guʾil, Tarikh-e Sansur dar Matbuʿat-e Iran (Tehran: Agah, 1981–83)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰² Brocchi, Giovanni Battista, Giornale delle osservazioni fatte ne' viaggi in Egitto, nella Siria e nella Nubia, 5 vols. (Bassano, Italy: A. Roberti, 1841), 1:172–74Google Scholar, and Forni, Giuseppe, Viaggio nell'Egitto e nell'alta Nubia, 2 vols. (Milan, Italy: D. Salvi, 1859), 1:140–41Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Jones, Robert, “The Medici Oriental Press (Rome 1584–1614) and the Impact of its Arabic Publications on Northern Europe” in The “Arabick” Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, ed. Russell, G. A. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994)Google Scholar, and Olga Pinto, “La typografia araba in Italia dal XVI al-XIX secolo,” Levante 1–2 (1964): 8–16, especially 10–11 on previous collaborations of Maronite and Italian printers. Note that Napoleon acquired equipment for his short-lived Egyptian printing program from the Vatican.

¹⁰⁴ Sabat, Tarikh al-Tabaʿa, 151. On Morosi, see Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino (Torino, Italy: Stamperia Reale, 1820), xlii, and L. E. Funaro, “Mezzi, metodie macchine: Notizie su Giuseppe Morosi,” Nuncius: Annali di Storia della Scienza, fasc. 1 (1998).

¹⁰⁵ Funaro, ibid., especially 99, 101, 110.

¹⁰⁶ Forni, Viaggio nell'Egitto, 1:141. On a more general level, L. A. Balboni, Gl'Italiani nella civiltà egiziana del secolo XIX: Storia-biografie-monografie (Alessandria, Italy: V. Pennason, 1906), 3:377, and Sabat, Tarikh al-Tabaʿa, 150–52.

¹⁰⁷ Brocchi, Giornale delle osservazioni fatte ne' viaggi in Egitto, 1:172–74.

¹⁰⁸ Dizionario Italiano e Arabo (Bolacco [Bulaq], Egypt: Stampa Reale, 1822), with contents in Arabic/Roman type.

¹⁰⁹ Forni, Viaggio nell'Egitto, 1:140, and Silvera, “First Egyptian Student Mission,” 7.

¹¹⁰ Pinto, Olga, “Mose Castelli, Tipografo Italiano al Cairo,” in A Francesco Gabrieli: Studi Orientalistici Offerti nel Sessantesimo Compleanno dai suoi Colleghi e Discepoli (Rome: Università di Roma, 1964)Google Scholar. Glass, “Die nahda und ihre Technik,” 66, records somewhat later dates for Castelli.

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¹²¹ Clogg, Richard, “An Attempt to Revive Turkish Printing in Istanbul in 1779,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 67–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²² Behdad, Ali, “The Powerful Art of Qajar Photography: Orientalism and (Self)-Orientalizing in Nineteenth-Century Iran,” Iranian Studies 34 (2001): 141–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²³ Marcel, Jean-Joseph, Oratio Dominica CL Linguis Versa, et Propriis Cujusque Linguæ Characteribus Plerumque Expressa (Paris: Typis Imperialibus, 1805)Google Scholar.

¹²⁴ Marcel, Jean-Joseph, Leçons de langue arabe (Paris: Éberhart, imprimeur du Collège Royal de France, 1819)Google Scholar.