Author's note: I thank Israel Gershoni, Haggai Erlich, and Sharon Neeman for their useful comments.

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¹⁷ Troutbeck, (British ambassador in Baghdad) to Eden, Sir Anthony, no. 6, 9 01 1953Google Scholar, PRO/FO/ 371/104678/EQ/1052/4.

¹⁸ Halpern, Manfred, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 51–78Google Scholar. On the centrality of bureaucracy as a source of employment for the effendiyya, see, for example, Ayubi, Nazih N. M., Bureaucracy and Politics in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Fernea, , The ShaykhGoogle Scholar. (It should be noted that Fernea cited clear characteristic traits for the effendiyya: officeholders at the lower end of state bureaucracy); Lerner, , The Passing of Traditional SocietyGoogle Scholar.

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²¹ This table was prepared by means of comparison among various sources whose data were not always identical. al-Ḥuṣrī, Sāṭiʿ, Mudhakkirāti fī al-ʿIrāq, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Taliʿa, 1968);Google ScholarQubain, Fahim, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966)Google Scholar; idem, The Reconstruction of Iraq, 1950–1957 (London: Atlantic Books, 1958), 211;Google ScholarMathews, R. D. and Akrawi, Matta, Education in the Arab Countries of the Middle East (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1949)Google Scholar.

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²⁵ Ibid., 203–32; Mushtāq, Ṭālib, Awrāq Ayyāmī (Beirut: Dar al-Taliʿa Liltabaʿat wal-Nashr, 1968), 188;Google ScholarAl-Ḥuṣrī, , Mudhakkirātī, 2:14Google Scholar. Akram Zuaʾitar, a Palestinian activist who began working in the Iraqi school system in the early 1930s, was active in nationalist circles in Baghdad and mentioned the demonstrations against Mond as an example of Iraq's support of the Palestinian Arabs; Zuaʿitar, Akram, Yawmiyyāt Akram Zuaʿitar al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭaniyya al-Filasṭiniyya 1935–1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 51Google Scholar.

²⁶ Sasson, Eliahu, On the Way to Peace (Tel Aviv: ‘Am Oved, 1978), 55–71Google Scholar. Part of the report by Zionist emissaries to Iraq about the meetings with Hikmat Sulayman and other Iraqi politicians. Eppel, Michael, The Palestine Conflict in the History of Modern Iraq, 1928–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1994), 54–55Google Scholar.

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²⁸ Batatu, , Old Social Classes, 318–19Google Scholar. A considerable number of the Sharifian officer–politicians came from the middle or lower-middle strata. Thus, for example, Jamil al-Madfaʿi (who served as prime minister four times in the 1930s and 1940s), Jaʿfar al-ʿAskari (who served as minister of defense in the 1930s). Yasin al-Hashimi, and his brother Taha all had humble origins but found their place in the conservative elite and became part of its backbone. (Admittedly, the al-Hashimi family of Baghdad was a notable family with a certain status; Yasin and Taha al-Hashimi, however, came from an impoverished branch of the family.)

²⁹ Concerning the expansion of the press in Iraq, see: Batti, Rafāʾīl, Al-Ṣaḥāfa fī al-ʿIrāq (Cairo: Jamiʿat al-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya-Muahadat al-Dirasat al-ʿArabiyya, 1957);Google ScholarMushtāq, , Awrāq Ayyāmī, 36Google Scholar.

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³⁸ The nationalist–rightist al-Istiqlāl and the National Democratic Party reorganized in 1946, following the lifting of the prohibition against party–political activity, which had been imposed following the Rashid ʿAli movement.

³⁹ About Salih Jabr, see Louis, Wm. Roger, The British Empire in the Middle East, Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 321.Google ScholarSee also Busk, (Baghdad) to Bevin, , 6 09 1946, PRO/FO/371/52402/E/9318.Google Scholar

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