¹ al-Sayyid, Aḥmad Luṭfī, Qiṣṣat Ḥayātī (Cairo, ca. 1962), pp. 18–34Google Scholar, discusses his schooling and early years. The research for this article was carried out under a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship and the sponsorship of the American Research Center in Egypt.

² Bāshā, Ismā‘īl Ṣ.idqī, Mudhakkirātī (Cairo, ca. 1950), p. 7.Google Scholar

³ Itzkowitz, Norman, “Mehmed Raghib Pasha: the Making of an Ottoman Grand Vizier” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1959), pp. 15–17.Google Scholar

⁴ Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim, “The Transformation of the Egyptian Elite: Prelude to the 'Urābī Revolt,” Middle East Journal, 21 (1967), 325–44Google Scholar, stresses that the barriers between the two ethnic groups were rapidly breaking down by the time of Ismā'īl.

⁵ Un Groupe d'officiers égyptiens, “A Review of the Condition of the Egyptian Army under the British Occupation,” in Oeuvres du Congrès National Egyptien tenu à Bruxelles le 22, 23, 24 Septembre 1910 (Bruges, 1911), pp. 237–53.Google Scholar

⁶ Unless otherwise specified, all observations on cabinet positions held by men of various occupations are based on Karam, Fu'ād, al-Niṣārāi wa al-Wisārāt al-Miṣrīyah (Cairo, 1969), I.Google Scholar

⁷ On al-Azhar generally see Heyworth-Dunne, J., An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt (London, 1968), passimGoogle Scholar, and Dodge, Bayard, Al-Ashar: A Millenium of Muslim Learning (Washington, D.C., 1961).Google Scholar On the problems of the ulema in adjusting to the modern world, see Crecelius, Daniel, “Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulema to Modernization,”Google Scholar and Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, “The Ulama of Cairo in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in Keddie, Nikki R., ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley, 1972).Google Scholar

⁸ Hourani, Albert, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (London, 1962), pp. 69–81.Google Scholar

⁹ For this paragraph see Ziadeh, Farhat J., Lawyers, the Rule of Law, and Liberalism in Modern Egypt (Stanford, California, 1968), pp. 37–42.Google Scholaral-Jundī, ‘Abd al-Halīm, Jarā'im wa Ightiyālāt al-Qarn al-'Ishrīn (Cairo, n.d.)Google Scholar, I, is a detailed biography of Hilbāwī. 'Abd al-Khāliq Muḥammad Lāshīn, Sa'd Zaghlūl: Dawruhu fī al-Siyāsah al-Miṣrīyah ḥattā Sanat 1914 (Cairo, 1970)Google Scholar gives a detailed account of Zaghlūl's early career.

¹⁰ Hourani, , Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, p. 163Google Scholar, and Safran, Nadav, Egypt in Search of Political Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), p. 139Google Scholar, give brief accounts of the ‘Abd al-Rāziqs’ careers. For Husayn, see Cachia, Pierre, Taha Husayn (London, 1956)Google Scholar, and Hourani, , Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, pp. 324–340.Google Scholar

¹¹ On Dār al-'Ulūm see al-Jawwād, Muḥammad 'Abd, Taqwīm Dār al-'Ulūm (Cairo, ca. 1951)Google Scholar and Kinsey, David C., “Efforts for Educational Synthesis under Colonial Rule: Egypt and Tunisia,” Comparative Education Review, 15 (1971). 172–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar On the School for Qadis see Jawwād, , pp. 268–270Google Scholar and Final Report of the University Commission (Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1921), pp. 73–74 (hereafter, Final Report).Google Scholar

¹² Mazyad, A. M. H., Aḥmad Amīn (Cairo 1886–1954): Advocate of Social and Literary Reform in Egypt (Leiden, 1963).Google Scholar Mazyad's biographical section is based exclusively on Amīn, Aḥmad, Hayātī (Cairo, 1950).Google Scholar

¹³ al-Jawwād, 'Abd, Taqwīn Dār al-‘Ulūm, pp. 276, 402, 404, 406.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Fathī Zaghlūl's biography is in Zakhūrah, Ilyās, Mir'āt al-'Aṣr fī Tarīkh wa Rusūm Akābir al-Rijāl li-Miṣr (2 vols., Cairo, 1897–1916), II, 351–52.Google Scholar On the third ‘Abd al-Rāziq brother, Maḥmūd, see Lampson, to Eden, , 04 16, 1937Google Scholar, FO 407/221, “Egyptian Personalities,” p. 24.Google Scholar

¹⁵ This paragraph and the next are based on al-Rāfi'ī, 'Abd al-Rah.mān, Mudhakkirātī 1889–1951 (Cairo, 1952), pp. 5–6Google Scholar; idem, Mus.t.afā Kamil (Cairo, 1962), p. 19Google Scholar; ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Fahmī, “Mudhakkirāt ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Fahmī,” al-Mus.awwar, 06 10, 1949, p. 28Google Scholar; and an interview with Mah.mūd Sābā, Cairo, January, 1972.

¹⁶ Accounts of education during the British period are found in Tignor, Robert L., Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 1882–1914 (Princeton, 1966), pp. 319–48Google Scholar and Salāmah, Jirjis, Athar al-Iḥtilāl al-Briṭānī fī al-Ta‘līm al-Qawmī Misr (1882–1922) (Cairo, 1966).Google Scholar See also Szyliowicz, Joseph S., “Education and Political Development in Turkey, Egypt, and Iran,” Comparative Education Review, 13 (1969), 150–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The observations on British educational policies in this article are based largely on study of the Annual Reports of the British Consul-General in Egypt, published both in the House of Commons Sessional Papers and separately (hereafter, AR 1901, etc.) and on the mimeographed annual “Note on the Progress and Condition of Public Instruction in Egypt” by Douglas Dunlop, adviser to the Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction (hereafter, “Note 1901,” etc.).

¹⁷ Berque, Jacques, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, tr. Stewart, Jean (London, 1972), p. 205Google Scholar and Milner Mission Papers, FO 848/3, “The Government of Egypt. Administration (Education),” pamphlet by J. Boyd-Carpenter, p. 1.

¹⁸ See the tables in Statistique Scolaire d'Égypte, Année 1912–1913 (Cairo, 1913), pp. 16, 127.Google Scholar

¹⁹ A R 1906, pp. 96–97.Google Scholar

²⁰ On the percentage of paying pupils, see AR 1898, p. 40 and AR 1905, p. 82. Mentions of fees are scattered throughout the Annual Reports; e.g. AR 1901, p. 39 and AR 1902, p. 54. See also “Note 1905,” p. 6 and Règlement organique de l'École de Droit (Cairo, 1886), p. 7.Google Scholar

²¹ AR 1900, p. 50.Google Scholar For a detailed discussion of tuition policies by Dunlop, see “Note 1905,” pp. 4–8.

²² Ibid., p. 7.

²³ AR 1906, p. 39.Google Scholar

²⁴ On the Gorst administration generally, see Tignor, , Modernisation and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, pp. 291–314.Google Scholar The following observations on his educational policies are based on the Annual Reports.

²⁵ “Note 1910,” pp. 76–79. On numbers graduated each year, see the table in Statistique scolaire 1912–1913, p. 139.Google Scholar

²⁶ “Note 1909,” p. 69.

²⁷ AR 1913, p. 13.Google Scholar

²⁸ Milner Mission Papers, FO 484/3, “Education in Egypt,” memorandum by Douglas Dunlop, p. 5.

²⁹ Tignor, , Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, p. 323Google Scholar, and AR 1892, p. 30.Google Scholar

³⁰ For this paragraph see “Note 1905,” pp. 46–48 and AR 1901, p. 39.Google Scholar

³¹ Final Report, pp. 57, 62, 66Google Scholar summarizes the history of these schools. In this article the term “teachers” excludes teachers in the higher schools, who looked down on secondary teachers and identified themselves more with the profession in which they had been trained (law, etc.) than with teaching.

³² See the statistics of Abdel Aziz Chaouiche in Recueil des travaux du premier Congrès Égyptien réuni à Héliopolis (Alexandria, 1911), pp. 156–59.Google Scholar Shāwīsh's statistics might seem suspect because he was anti-Copt, but they are generally in line with figures in other sources.

³³ Lampson, to Eden, , 04 16, 1937, FO 407/221Google Scholar, “Egyptian Personalities.” In this paper the term “lawyers” includes anyone with a law degree or who worked as a lawyer or judge. Others on the list included 6 army officers, 5 religious leaders, 4 landowners, and 4 from business. Four were from the royal family. Fourteen were government officials whose educational background was not indicated; the occuptaion and education of nine others is not listed.

³⁴ On the two Cairo law schools, see Bey, Muḥammad Kāmil Mursī, “Kullīyat al-Ḥuqūq,” Kitāb al-Dhahabī lil-Maḥākim al-Ahlīyah (Cairo, 1937), I, 409–432Google Scholar and Faure, Fernand, “L'École Française de Droit du Caire,” Revue Politique et Parlementaire, 83 (1915), 390–405.Google Scholar

³⁵ For this paragraph, see Luṭfī, , Qiṣṣat ḤayātīGoogle Scholar; al-Rāfi'ī, , KāmilGoogle Scholar; Fahmī, , al-Muṣawwar, 06 10, 1949, pp. 28–30Google Scholar; and al-Rāfi'ī, , Mudhakkirāti¯, p. 21.Google Scholar The quotation from Kāmil is from Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr., “The Egyptian Nationalist Party: 1892–1919,” in Holt, P. M., ed., Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt (London, 1968), p. 311.Google Scholar

³⁶ For this paragraph, see Ziadeh, , Lawyers, the Rule of Law, and Liberalism, pp. 37–39, 67.Google Scholar

³⁷ al-Ḥuqūq, 13 (10 22, 1898), 322–333.Google Scholar

³⁸ Fahmī, , al-Muṣawwar, 06 10, 1949, p. 30.Google Scholar

³⁹ For this paragraph, see Mcllwraith, Malcolm, Report for the Year 1902 Presented by the Judicial Advisor (Cairo, 1904), pp. 106–107Google Scholar; Report for the Year 1904 Presented by the Judicial Advisor (Cairo, 1905), pp. 25–26Google Scholar; and AR 1906, pp. 62–65.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ This paragraph is based on AR 1906, p. 96Google Scholar; AR 1907, p. 37Google Scholar; AR 1909, p. 45Google Scholar; and Mursī, , Kitāb al-Dhahabī, p. 421.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Kamel, Mahmoud, Journal d'un avocat égyptien: le côté humain du barreau (Cairo, 1946).Google Scholar There is also an Arabic version, Yawmīyāt Ṃuḥāmī Miṣrī (Cairo, 1946).Google Scholar For other despairing accounts of trying to get a start in the legal profession after World War I, see Tādrūs, Tādrūs Mīkhā'īl, Dhikrāyāt min ‘Ālam al-Muḥāmāh wa al-Qaā’ (Cairo, n.d.)Google Scholar and Raḍwān, Fatḥī, Muḥāmin Saghīr (Cairo, ca. 1959).Google Scholar

⁴² Berque, , Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, p. 457Google Scholar, notes that of 62 law graduates in 1934, only 6 got government jobs.

⁴³ Of Muḥammad Farīd's law class of 1887, for example, three became Pashas, ten became beys, and only two did not achieve at least beylical rank (Rāfi,'ī, Farīd, pp. 22–23).

⁴⁴ On the history of the school see Mahfouz, Naguib Bey, The History of Medical Education in Egypt (Cairo, 1936)Google Scholar; Mahfouz, Naguib, The Life of an Egyptian Doctor (Edinburgh, 1966)Google Scholar; and Heyworth-Dunne, , Introduction to the History of Education, passim.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ A R 1901, p. 44.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Milner Mission Papers, FO 848/19, Section B. Mission's Review of the Administration and Causes of Unrest. “Ministry of Education,” p. 20.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ For this paragraph, see AR 1903, p. 62Google Scholar and AR 1911, p. 28.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Mahfouz, , Life of an Egyptian Doctor.Google Scholar For a mention of altruistic reasons for entering medicine, see al-Dīwānī, Muṣṭafā, Qiṣṣat Ḥayātī (Cairo, 1965), p. 44.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Lloyd, to Chamberlain, , 05 23, 1927, FO 371/12388Google Scholar, “Biographies,” p. 24.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ AR 1899, p. 36Google Scholar; AR 1901, p. 44.Google Scholar

⁵¹ AR 1906, p. 97.Google Scholar

⁵² SirChirol, Valentine, The Egyptian Problem (London, 1920), p. 233.Google Scholar

⁵³ On the engineering school, see Final Report, pp. 48–50Google Scholar; Heyworth-Dunne, , Introduction to the History of Education, passimGoogle Scholar; and the Annual Reports.

⁵⁴ Heyworth-Dunne, , Introduction to the History of Education, p. 429.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Willcocks, William, Sixty Years in the East (Edinburgh, 1935), pp. 95–96.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ AR 1903, p. 62.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ For this paragraph, see AR 1898, p. 45Google Scholar; AR 1899, p. 36Google Scholar; and Final Report p. 50.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ AR 1906, p. 36Google Scholar; Milner Mission Papers, FO 848/19, Section B. Mission's Review of the Administration, and Causes of Unrest, “Note on the Ministry of Public Works,” p. I.

⁵⁹ This paragraph is based on AR 1910, pp. 57, 59Google Scholar; AR 1920, p. 74Google Scholar; and Final Report, p. 48.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ This paragraph is based on AR 1920, p. 73Google Scholar; AR 1908, p. 47Google Scholar; Final Report, p. 48Google Scholar; Qubain, Fahim, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, 1966), p. 120Google Scholar; and Milner Mission Papers, FO 848/19, Section B. Mission's Review of the Administration, and Causes of Unrest, “Ministry of Education,” p. 4.Google Scholar

⁶¹ A R 1920, p. 73.Google Scholar

⁶² AR 1892, p. 35Google Scholar; Khayr al-Dīn al-Ziriklī, al-A'lām (Beirut, ca. 1969), 1, 310.Google Scholar

⁶³ For information on the persons mentioned in this paragraph, see Lampson, to Eden, , 04 16, 1937, FO 407/221Google Scholar, “Egyptian Personalities;” pp. 10, 66–67Google Scholar; and Lloyd, to Chamberlain, , 05 23, 1927, FO 371/12388Google Scholar, “Biographies,” p. 16.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ On the history of the school, including its name-changes, see Kitāb ai-Dhahabī li-Madrasat al-Mu'allimīn al-'Ulyā (Cairo, ca. 1935)Google Scholar; Heyworth-Dunne, , Introduction to the History of Education, pp. 439–41Google Scholar; and the Annual Reports.

⁶⁵ AR 1905, p. 91.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ AR 1904, p. 79.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ AR 1906, p. 39.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ AR 1908, p. 40Google Scholar and “Note 1907,” p. 58.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Milner Mission's Papers, FO 848/3, “Education in Egypt,” memorandum by Douglas Dunlop, p. 5 and FO 848/19, Section B. Mission's Review of the Administration, and Causes of Unrest, “Ministry of Education,” p. 4.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Bowman, Humphrey, Middle-East Window (London, 1942), pp. xiii, 37.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Final Report, p. 47.Google Scholar

⁷² Milner Mission Papers, FO 848/7, Section D. “Proposed Readjustment of Salaries of Egyptian Government Schools,” undated Ministry of Education memorandum, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁷³ Note 1909, pp. 68–69.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ AR 1914–1919, p. 56.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ AR 1893, p. 27.Google Scholar Figures on those who left teaching for law are derived from the lists in Kitāb al-Dhahabī-li-Madrasat al-Mu'allimīn al-'Ulyā, p. 139 ff.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Nuqrāshī is treated in Kitāb al-Dhahabī li-Madrasat al-Mu'allimīn, pp. 119–20Google Scholar, and Lampson to Eden, April 16, 1937, FO 407/221, “Egyptian Personalities,” pp. 54–55.Google Scholar Information on the three poets is found in Ḍayf, Shawqī, al-Adab al-'Arabī al-Mu'āşir fī Miṣr (Cairo, 1961), pp. 128–30, 136–37, 261–62Google Scholar, and al-Zubaidi, A. M. K.. “The Dīwan School,” Journal of Arabic Literature, 1 (1970), pp. 36–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Māzinī has written his own memoirs, Qiṣṣat Ḥayāt (Cairo, n.d.).

⁷⁷ See for example the samples of the membership of the Muslim Brethren in Mitchell, Richard P., The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London, 1969), pp. 328–330.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ The observations on the current state of the professions are based on a number of con versations with Egyptians in Cairo in 1966–67 and 1971–72.

⁷⁹ Halpern, Manfred, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, 1963), pp. 257–258.Google Scholar