Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T05:07:02.723Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Economics and Shifting Alliances: Jordan's Relations with Syria and Iraq, 1975–81

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 April 2009

Laurie A. Brand
Laurie A. Brand
Affiliation:
teaches at the School of International Relations, University of Southern California, VKC 330, Los Angeles, Calif., 90089, U.S.A.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

A key characteristic of inter-Arab politics since World War II has been seemingly ever-shifting alliances. In attempting to explain patterns in Arab state behavior, Arab and Western analysts alike have generally attributed the sources of alignment decisions, implicitly or explicitly, to the personalities of the leaders or to ideological positions. Although such explanations may be intuitively appealing, the historical record is replete with examples that challenge such an analysis: Syria and Iraq's rapprochement in 1979, secular Syria and theocratic Iran's alliance during the Iran–Iraq War, and conservative Jordan's honeymoon with Iraq during the 1980s. These are only a few of the numerous, significant examples of alignments that suggest a rethinking of the bases of Arab interaction may be in order.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 26 , Issue 3 , August 1994 , pp. 393 - 413
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

Author's note: Field research for this article and for the larger work of which it is a part, Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making (Columbia University Press, forthcoming), was carried out in the fall of 1991 and summer of 1992, and was made possible by a Fulbright Islamic Civilization grant and by support from the School of International Relations, University of Southern California. Research assistance in Los Angeles was provided by the Center for International Studies at the University of Southern California.

1 The classic study is Kerr's, MalcolmThe Arab Cold War, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford, 1971).Google Scholar

2 Walt, Stephen, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988), chap. 1Google Scholar.

3 David, Steven R., “Explaining Third World Alignment”, World Politics, 43 2 (01 1991): 233–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Ibid., 235–36.

5 Barnett, Michael N. and Levy, Jack S., “Domestic Sources of Alliances and Alignments: The Case of Egypt 1962–73”, International Organization 45, 3 (Summer 1991): 369–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Ibid., 370.

7 Moon, Bruce, “Political Economy Approaches to the Comparative Study of Foreign Policy”, in New Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy, ed. Hermann, Charles F., Kegley, Charles W. Jr, and Rosenau, James N. (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987), 35–38Google Scholar.

8 Author's calculations from Central Bank of Jordan, Yearly Statistical Series (1964–1989), 10 1989, Table 36Google Scholar.

9 Author's calculations from ibid., Tables 22 and 23.

10 For a full presentation and analysis of Jordan's relations with Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait for the entire 1975–1990 period, see Brand, Laurie A., Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making (forthcoming)Google Scholar.

11 Interview with al-Rifaʿi, Zayd, prime minister of Jordan from 1973 to 1976 and 1985–89, 11 07 1992Google Scholar; interview with Saqqaf, Muhammad, a member of the joint committee and a consultant on economic unity affairs at the time, 23 10 1991Google Scholar.

12 Much of this discussion is taken from Masīrat al-tkāmul bayna Sūriyā wa-al-Urdunn:ʿalā darb al-waḥda (The March of Integration between Syria and Jordan: On the Path of Unity), a publication of the Syrian and Jordanian news agencies, 1977, 48–49 (hereafter Masīrat al-takāmul)Google Scholar.

13 For a full discussion of the impact of Syria's 1970 closure of its border with Jordan, see al-Sākit, Bassām, “Taḥlīl al-Āthār al-Iqtiṣādiyya li-Ighlāq al-Ḥudūd al-Sūriyyā maʿa al-Urdunn” (Analysis of the Economic Effects of the Closure of the Syrian Border with Jordan), unpublished study of the Central Bank of Jordan (n.d.)Google Scholar.

14 Rifaʿi interview.

15 Masīrat al-takāmul, 150Google Scholar.

16 ForeignʿInformation Service, Near East (hereafter FBIS), 4 03 1977Google Scholar.

17 Baram, Amatzia, “Baathi Iraq and Hashemite Jordan: From Hostility to Alignment”, Middle East Journal 45, 1 (Winter 1991): 55Google Scholar.

18 Interviews with Rifaʿi and Saqqaf; with al-Sakit, Bassam, former economic adviser to the crown prince, 8 10 1991;Google Scholar and with Badran, Mudar, former prime minister (1976–79, 1981–84, and 1989–90), 19 07 1992Google Scholar.

19 FBIS, 2 03 1978Google Scholar.

20 “Agreement for Economic Cooperation and Organization of Trade, 6 April 1975”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt al-Iqtiṣādiyya wa-al-Tujāriyya bayna al-Mamlaka al-Urdunniyya al-Hāshimiyya wa-al-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya (Compilation of the Economic and Trade Agreements between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Arab States), pt. 1 (Amman: Ministry of Industry and Trade, 1985), 203–8Google Scholar.

21 “Communiqué Issued by the Joint Jordanian–Syrian Higher Committee, 30 July 1975”, in Maj-mūʿat al-lttifāqiyyāt, 221–26Google Scholar.

22 “Communiqué Issued by the Joint Jordanian–Syrian Higher Committee, 18 February 1976”, in Majmūʿat al-lttifāqiyyāt, 227–33Google Scholar.

23 Masīrat al-takāmul, 114Google Scholar.

24 “Agreement on Agenda, 4 March 1975“, 200–2Google Scholar.

25 Masīrat al-takāmul, 33–34Google Scholar.

26 “Communiqué Issued by the Joint Jordanian–Syrian Higher Committee, 26 August 1975”, in Maj-mūʿat al-lttifāqiyyāt, 238–41Google Scholar.

27 The company's initial capital exceeded S £60 million and shares in it were owned in equal numbers by the two governments.

28 “Communiqué Issued by the Joint Jordanian–Syrian Higher Committee, 22 November 1976”, in Majmūatʿ al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 242–48Google Scholar.

29 Interview with ʿUbaydat, Ahmad, former head of Jordanian Intelligence and prime minister from January 1984 to April 1985, 14 07 1992Google Scholar.

30 Badran interview.

31 Middle East Economic Digest (hereafter MEED), 6 01 1978Google Scholar.

32 Ibid., 24 November 1978.

33 Ibid., 25 August 1978.

34 Ibid., 30 March 1979.

35 Ibid., 16 May 1980; Statistical Yearbook, Department of Statistics, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 1983Google Scholar.

36 FBIS, 22 05 1980Google Scholar.

37 lbid., 19 May 1980.

38 Jordan Times, 16 10 1980Google Scholar.

39 FBIS, 19 11 1980Google Scholar.

40 Ibid., 21 November 1980.

41 interview with Dral-Tarawina, Fayiz, economic adviser and former minister of supply, 10 10 1991Google Scholar.

42 The numbers quoted on troops deployed at this time vary widely. These figures are taken from the New York Times, 26 11 1980Google Scholar.

43 “Syria, Taking a Hard, Long Look at the Economy”, MEED, 22 05 1981Google Scholar. It was rumored that Saudi Arabia provided Syria with substantial aid (no figures available) following the mediation visit in early December that led to the Syrian withdrawal.

44 Ibid., 5 December 1980.

45 “Jordanian–Syrian Trade Survives War of Words”, MEED, 20 02 1981Google Scholar.

46 “Syria, Taking a Hard, Long Look at the Economy”, ibid., 22 May 1981.

47 Department of Statistics, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Statistical Yearbook, 1983Google Scholar.

48 MEED, 14 05 1982Google Scholar.

49 Ibid., 11 December 1981.

50 Ibid., 22 October 1982.

51 Syria and Jordan: Quarterly Economic Report of the Economic Intelligence Unit, no. 4, 1980, 14Google Scholar.

52 Badran interview; interview with former foreign minister and prime minister al-Masri, Tahir, 14 06 1992Google Scholar.

53 Economist Intelligence Unit, Iraq: Quarterly Economic Report, no. 1, 1975, 5Google Scholar.

54 MEED, 28 05 1976Google Scholar.

55 Ibid., 5 November 1976.

56 Economist Intelligence Unit, Iraq: Quarterly Economic Report, no. 4, 1976, 5Google Scholar.

57 Middle East Contemporary Survey, 1976–1977, 487Google Scholar.

58 FBIS, 11 10 1977Google Scholar.

59 MEED, 15 12 1978Google Scholar.

60 FBIS, 2 10 1978Google Scholar.

61 A1-Masri interview.

62 Badran interview.

63 Ibid.

64 MEED, 4 07 1975Google Scholar.

65 “Protocol Adjusting the Economic and Technical Agreement between the Republic of Iraq and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 26 June 1975”, Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, pt. 2, 68Google Scholar.

66 MEED, 27 02 1976Google Scholar.

67 Ibid., 24 March 1976.

68 Ibid., 19 August 1977.

69 Economist Intelligence Unit, Iraq: Quarterly Economic Report, no. 4, 1978, 11Google Scholar.

70 It is not always clear in documents or journal reports whether the dinar in question is Jordanian or Iraqi. At the time, the Jordanian dinar was worth about U.S. $2.80–$3.00 and the Iraqi dinar about U.S. $3.30.

71 FBIS, 26 12 1978Google Scholar.

72 Department of Statistics, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Statistical Yearbook, 1980Google Scholar.

73 MEED, 21 05 1975Google Scholar.

74 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Committee, 27 June 1975”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 69–71Google Scholar.

75 Statistical Yearbook, 1980Google Scholar.

76 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Committee, 21 March 1976”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 72–75Google Scholar.

77 FBIS, 28 05 1977Google Scholar.

78 Ibid., 21 April 1978.

79 MEED, 4 07 1975Google Scholar.

80 Ibid.

81 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Committee, 27 June 1975”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 70Google Scholar.

82 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian—Iraqi Committee, 7–12 May 1977”, in Ibid., 84–88.

83 MEED, 31 03 1975Google Scholar.

84 Ibid., 13 June 1975.

85 “Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation between the Republic of Iraq and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 26 June 1975”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 65–67Google Scholar.

86 H-5 is a small town that developed around one of the pumping stations on the old Iraq Petroleum Company pipeline in eastern Jordan near the Iraqi border.

87 MEED, 21 11 1975Google Scholar.

88 FBIS, 16 02 1978Google Scholar.

89 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Committee, April 1978”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 97–113Google Scholar.

90 FBIS, 24 10 1979Google Scholar.

91 Economist Intelligence Unit, Iraq: Quarterly Economic Report, no. 3, 1980, 8Google Scholar.

92 Royal Scientific Society, Al-ʿAlāqāt al-Urdunniyya li-Duwal Majlis al-Taʿāwun al-ʿArabi, 1974–1989 (Jordan's Relations with the States of the Arab Cooperation Council), (Amman, n.d.), 5Google Scholar.

93 MEED, 29 02 1980Google Scholar.

94 Ibid., 9 May 1980.

95 Royal Scientific Society, Al-ʿAlāqāt al-Urdunniyya, 5Google Scholar.

96 Economist Intelligence Unit, Iraq: Quarterly Economic Report, no. 4, 1980, 12Google Scholar.

97 Royal Scientific Society, Al-ʿAlāqāt al-Urdunniya, 5Google Scholar.

98 Ibid.; MEED, 19 September 1980.

99 MEED, 26 09 1980Google Scholar.

100 FBIS, 8 12 1980Google Scholar.

101 MEED, 30 03 1979Google Scholar.

102 Ibid., 13 April 1979.

103 Ibid., 2 May 1980.

104 Ibid., 3 October 1980.

105 “Developments in the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Industrial Committee, 14 September 1980”, in Majmūʿat al-Ittifāqiyyāt, 168–70Google Scholar.

106 MEED, 18 05 1979Google Scholar.

107 Ibid., 1 February 1980.

108 Ibid., 29 February 1980.

109 Ibid., 25 April 1980.

110 FBIS, 20 02 1980Google Scholar.

111 “Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Jordanian–Iraqi Committee, 1 April 1980”, in Majmūʿat al-lttifāqiyyāt, 133–36Google Scholar.

112 “Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Republic of Iraq, 2 May 1980”, in ibid., 155–61.

113 Ibid., 155.

114 MEED, 14 11 1980Google Scholar.

115 Ibid., 29 August 1980.

116 Terrill, W. Andrew, “Saddam's Closet Ally: Jordan and the Gulf War”, Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 9, 2 (Winter 1985): 46–47Google Scholar.

117 See Brand, Laurie A., “Liberalization and Changing Political Coalitions: The Bases of Jordan's 1990–91 Gulf Crisis Policy”, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 13, 4 (1991): 6–10Google Scholar.

118 For a more detailed discussion of the applicability of the budget security concept to Jordan's position during the Gulf crisis, see Brand, , Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations, chap. 8Google Scholar.