¹ al-Ghul, Mahmoud A., “The Doctrine of Dar al-Islam and Its Relevance to Arab Nationalism,” lecture delivered at the Middle East Institute of Columbia University, 11 September 1973.Google Scholar

² See, e.g., Prescott, J. R. V., The Geography of Frontiers and Boundaries (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965).Google Scholar

³ E.g., Ardrey, Robert, The Territorial Imperative (New York: Atheneum, 1966);Google ScholarSommer, Robert, Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969).Google Scholar

⁴ Soja, Edward, The Political Organization of Space, Commission on College Geography, Resource Paper No. 8, Association of American Geographers.Google Scholar

⁵ Gale, Stephen, “Conjectures on Many-Valued Logic, Regions and Criteria for Conflict Resolution,” Research on Metropolitan Change and Conflict Resolution, Working Paper No. 10, Peace Science Department, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar

⁶ As distinct from the ever-growing organic state predicted originally by Ratzel, Friedrich (Politische Geographie, [Berlin: 1897]).Google Scholar

⁷ Encyclopedia of Islam 2d ed.; (London: Luzac and Co., 1960), s.v. dar al-Islam, p. 127.Google Scholar

⁸ The date or source in which the phrase first appeared is not known but chronology is not in any event an issue here.

⁹ Khadduri, Majid, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1955), p. 46;Google Scholar italics added.

¹⁰ Cited in von Grunebaum, G. E., “Islam: Its Inherent Power of Expansion and Adaptation,” in Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), p. 1. See, of course, the works of Joseph Schacht.Google Scholar

¹¹ See Khadduri, , War and Peace, p. 43;Google Scholar also, Shaybani, , The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar, trans. by Khadduri, Majid (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966).Google Scholar

¹² In his magisterial work, La géographie humaine du monde musulman jusqu'au milieu du lle siècle: géographie et géographie humaine dans la littérature arabe des origines à 1050 (Paris: Mouton & Cie., 1967), André Miquel is technically correct but rather over-simplifies in asserting that the distinction was solely a juridical one (p. 77).Google Scholar

¹³ Hazm, Ibn, Kitāb al-Fasl fī al-Milal wa'l-Ahwā wa'l Nihal (Cairo: 1321/1901), IV, 135;Google ScholarRushd, Ibn, Kitab al-Muqaddimāt al-Mumahhidāt (Cairo: 1325/1906), II, 259.Google Scholar

¹⁴ An interesting discussion occurs in Ahmad, Aziz, “The Shrinking Frontiers of Islam,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, VII, 2 (1976), 145–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵ Qur'an 16:110–111. There are many other such verses, as 4:100, 16:41, etc. The translation used is by N. J. Dawood (4th ed.; Baltimore: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1974).

¹⁶ al-Mawardi, , Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya, ed. Enger, Maximilian (Bonn, 1853), esp. pp. 237–238.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Fadel, Mostafa, “Islamic law” (University of Utah, mimeographed lecture, 1964), p. 54: italics added.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid.

¹⁹ Note that here church is used in its generic sense for religion.

²⁰ The oldest fixed boundary in the Middle East, the Turko-Persian border, was established–and none too precisely–by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639. See: Harari, Maurice, “The Turco-Persian Boundary Question: A Case Study in Boundary Making in the Near and Middle East,” Ph.D. diss. (New York: Columbia University, 1958).Google Scholar

²¹ There are numerous sources, of course, on the regional and sociological origins of Islam and its tenets. See, e.g., in the present context, Taha Husayn, Al-adab al-Jahili, and de Planhol, Xavier, Les fondements géographiques de l'histoire de l'Islam (Paris: Flammarion, 1968).Google Scholar

²² Qur'an 6:11, 27:69, 29:20, 30:42; italics added.

²³ E.g., the Gypsies, nomads all, constitute a tribe (or a number of tribes, depending on the level of analysis) whereas, e.g., the Cheyenne tribesmen were (before ca. 1830) in no sense nomads.

²⁴ Gardet, Louis, La cité musulmane (Paris: Librairie Philosophique, J. Vrin, 1969).Google Scholar

²⁵ Much of today's Middle East (Maghreb through to Pakistan) has a Köppen BWh climate classification: red desert, highly saline soils, and precipitation of less than 12 inches a year.

²⁶ Quoted in Gardet, , La cité musulmane, p. 216.Google Scholar This point, although intuitively appealing, is not universally accepted.

²⁷ al-Ghunaimi, Mohammad Talaat, The Muslim Conception of international Law and the Western Approach (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968), p. 16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁸ Khaldun, Ibn, The Muqaddimah, trans. Rosenthal, Franz (New York: Pantheon Books, 1958), I, 295.Google Scholar

²⁹ Aswad, Barbara, “Social and Ecological Aspects in the Formation of Islam,” in Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East, ed. Sweet, Louise (New York: Natural History Press, 1970), p. 68. As usual in such cases there are other interpretations.Google Scholar

³⁰ Gardet, , La cité musulmane, p. 110.Google Scholar

³¹ Pere Lammens, quoted in Armanazi, Najib, L'Islam et le droit international (Paris: Librairie Picart, 1929), p. 18. Here we are not concerned with historical generalities but with historical specificity of dar al-Islam.Google Scholar

³² Qu'ran 14:40.

³³ That such facets may have subtle economic affinities is not denied; yet, even such considerations as conditions and nature of ownership and financial pressures, which seem blatantly economic, reflect, most often, the interplay of other activities (population pressures, social structure, etc).

³⁴ Hamidullah, Muhammad, Muslim Conduct of State (Lahore: Sh. Mohammad Ashraf, 1968), p. 84.Google Scholar

³⁵ Janson, Hermann, Die Rechtlichen und Ideologischen Beziehungen des Islamischen Staatenkreises zum abendlandischen Volkerrecht (Inaugural-dissertation … Rechts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultat der Universitat Bern, 1955).Google Scholar

³⁶ Gardet, , La cité musulmane, p. 19.Google Scholar

³⁷ See Bishai, Wilson, “Negotiations and Peace Agreements between Muslims and Non-Muslims in Islamic History,” Medieval and Middle Eastern Studies in Honor of Aziz Suryal Atiya, ed. Hanna, Sami A. (Leiden, 1972), pp. 50–61.Google Scholar

³⁸ Yusuf, Abu, Kitab al-Kharaj (Cairo: 1352/1932), pp. 140–141,Google Scholar cited in ibid.

³⁹ See Fenwick, Charles Ghequiere, International Law (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1948), p. 105.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Khaldun, Ibn, The Muqaddimah, I., 473.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Khadduri, , War and Peace, p. 157.Google Scholar

⁴² See Miquel, , La géographie humaine.Google Scholar

⁴³ Hudud al-Alam, the Regions of the World: A Persian Geography, trans. Minorsky, V., Gibb, E. J. W. Memorial Series, n.s., XI, (Oxford: University Press, 1937), p. 82.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Hudud, p. 82.

⁴⁵ Ibid., p. 30.

⁴⁶ Strabo, , The Geography of Strabo, trans. Hamilton, H. C. and Falconer, W., Vol. I (London: Bohn, 1854).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See Von Grunebaum, , “The Problem of Cultural Influence,” in Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity,” pp. 19–39.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Hudud, p. 81.

⁴⁹ The Hudud, it should be noted, is an admittedly derivative work—”…we shall explain…so far as we could find these details in the books of our predecessors or hear reports about them…” (p. 83)—and, therefore, this sense of regionalization with dar al-Islam may be understood to have been observed even during preceding centuries.

⁵⁰ Hamidullah, , Muslim Conduct of State, p. 106.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Miquel, , La géographie humaine, p. 77.Google Scholar

⁵² Gibb, H. A. R., “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 12 (1958), 219–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵³ Quoted in Gardet, , La cité musulmane; p. 155,Google Scholar author's translation.

⁵⁴ Muqaddimah, I, 328. The statement must be modified to the extent that some of the eastern Islamic states at times recruited foreign mercenaries.

⁵⁵ “…liberty and justice for all.”

⁵⁶ Shaybani, , The Islamic Law of Nations, p. 65.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ von Grunebaum, , “Islam: Its Inherent Power,” p. 10.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ See Zeleny, Milan, “Conflict Dissolution,” General Systems, 21 (1976), 131–136,Google Scholar for a comparison of resolution and dissolution of conflict and a study of “prominent alternatives.” Our conclusions here resemble some of his theoretical derivations.

⁵⁹ See, e.g., Gale, Stephen, “On the Design of a Semiotic Theory of Conflict Resolution,” Papers of the Peace Science Society (International), 25 (1975), 75–83.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ See Daher, Adel, “Current Trends in Arab Intellectual Thought,” Research Program on Economic and Political Problems and Prospects in the Middle East (Rand Corporation Resources for the Future: RM-5979-FF, 1969).Google Scholar