Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 April 2009
In his landmark book on the problems and progress of international organization, Inis L. Claude wrote:
“Settlement,” lİke “pacific,” is a relative term. In some cases, the realistic ideal may be not to achieve the permanent settlement of a dispute, but to persuade the parties to settle down permanently with the dispute. The agenda of the Security Council and the General Assembly are liberally sprinkled with items that are beginning to seem like permanent fixtures, quarrels which the United Nations has managed to subject to peaceful perpetuation rather than peaceful settlement.
As in several other disputes, the United Nations has in the Cyprus dispute operated on the assumption that Claude described: that the enforced postponement of a showdown between the parties would make the dispute conducive to peaceful settlement. Actually, some disputes, if properly controlled over a period of time, ultimately wither into insignificance or become ripe for settlement. In some other disputes, however, a long cooling-off period may actually lead the parties to adopt more rigid and uncompromising positions, and the prospects for reasonable compromise gradually diminish.
1 Claude, Inis L. Jr., Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization (New York: Random House, 1971), 236–37.Google Scholar
2 Ibid., 238; see also: Groom, A. J. R., “The Process of Negotiation, 1974–1993,” in Dodd, Clement H., The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus (Huntingdon: Eothen Press, 1993), 2.Google Scholar
3 For the purpose of avoiding repetitiveness, this article will refer to the Greek Cypriots sometimes as Nicosia, the capital of the Greek Cypriot zone, and to the Turkish Cypriots as Lefkoşa, the capital of the Turkish region.
4 Bitsios, Dimitri S., Cyprus: The Vulnerable Republic (Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1975), 40.Google Scholar
5 Stavrinides, Zenon, The Cyprus Conflict: National Identity and Statehood (Wakefield: Stavrinides, 1976), 67.Google Scholar
6 Ibid.
7 Xydis, Stephen, “Toward ‘Toil and Moil’ in Cyprus,” The Middle East Journal 20 (Winter 1966): 8.Google Scholar
8 Bilge, Suat, “Kibns Uyusmazhǧi” (The Cyprus Conflict), Olaylarla Turk Dis Politikasi (Ankara: Ankara University, 1977), 351.Google Scholar
9 The Ottomans ruled the island between 1571 and 1878, when Abdulhamid II transferred the administration of the island to Britain while keeping formal Ottoman sovereignty over it. See SirHill, George, A History of Cyprus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952), 510.Google Scholar
10 Markides, Kyriakos C., The Rise and Fall of the Cyprus Republic (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 124.Google Scholar
11 UN. Official Records of the General Assembly Ninth Session: Plenary Meetings, 1954, 514th meeting, 17 12 1954, 539.Google Scholar
12 UN. Official Records of the General Assembly, Ninth Session: First Committee, 1954, 749th meeting, 14 12 1954, 544.Google Scholar
13 Xydis, Stephen G., Cyprus: Conflict and Conciliation, 1954–1958 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967), 599.Google Scholar
14 U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 1956/1957, Annexes, Agenda Item 55, 18; UN. General Assembly Official Records, 1958/1959, Annexes, Agenda Item 68, 14–19.Google Scholar
15 Bilge, , “The Cyprus Conflict,” 375;Google ScholarBitsios, , Cyprus, 70–71;Google ScholarCrawshaw, Nancy, The Cyprus Revolt (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978), 274–77;Google ScholarMacmillan, Harold, Riding the Storm: 1956–1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 687.Google Scholar
16 Macmillan, , Riding the Storm; Crawshaw, Cyprus Revolt, 667.Google Scholar
17 Crawshaw, , Cyprus Revolt, 340;Google ScholarBitsios, , Cyprus, 102.Google Scholar
18 Macmillan, , Riding the Storm, 667–87;Google ScholarEhrlich, Thomas, Cyprus: 1958–1967 (New York, London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 20.Google Scholar
19 Foley, Charles, A Legacy of Strife (London: Penguin, 1964), 27;Google ScholarMarkides, , The Rise and Fall, 36–37.Google Scholar
20 See Conference on Cyprus: Documents Signed and Initialled at Lancaster House on February 19, 1959 (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1959), Cmnd. 680.Google Scholar
21 For the text of the constitution, see Blaustein, Albert P., Flanz, Gisbert H., Constitutions of the Countries of the World: Cyprus (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications, 1972), 21.Google Scholar
22 Ibid., 48–51.
23 Ibid., 82.
24 Ibid., 84.
25 Joseph, Joseph S., “The International Power Broker: A Critical View of the Foreign Policy of Archbishop Makarios,” Mediterranean Quarterly 3 (1992): 21.Google Scholar
26 Ibid.
27 The Observer (London), 2 04 1961, 4;Google ScholarKyriakides, Stanley, Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), 85–88.Google Scholar
28 Stavrinides, , The Cyprus Conflict, 46.Google Scholar
29 The Times (London), 23 10 1961, 9.Google Scholar
30 Blaustein, , Constitutions, 96.Google Scholar
31 Milliyet, 3 01 1963.Google Scholar
32 Stavrinides, , The Cyprus Conflict, 62.Google Scholar
33 Makarios, Archbishop, “Proposals to Amend the Cyprus Constitution,” International Relations (Athens) 5 (04 1964): 25.Google Scholar
34 See the 21–30 December 1963 issues of The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Times (London);Google Scholar see also Stegenga, James A., The U.N. Force in Cyprus (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968), 61–66;Google ScholarPatrick, Richard A., Political Geography and the Cyprus Conflict (Waterloo, Ont.: University of Waterloo, 1976), 42.Google Scholar
35 Aksam, Istanbul, 27 12 1963.Google Scholar
36 U.N. Doc. S/5488, letter from the U.N. representative of Cyprus to the Security Council.
37 U.N. Security Council, 27 December 1963, telegram dated 26 December 1963 from the president of Cyprus to the secretary-general (S/5490 Supplement), 114.
38 Letter dated 27 December from the representative of Turkey to the secretary-general (S/5491/ Supp.), 115.
39 Cable no. 2822 (23 January 1964), in National Security Council History File: Cyprus Crisis (hereafter NSCHF), L. B. Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.;Google ScholarMilliyet, 2 02 1964;Google ScholarCumhuriyet, 17 01 1964.Google Scholar
40 See İnönü's letter to Johnson in the Middle East Journal 20 (Spring 1966): 389.Google Scholar
41 Berridge, Geophrey R., Return to the United Nations: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991).Google Scholar
42 Izvestia, 28 12 1963,Google Scholar in The Current Digest of the Soviet Press 15, 52 (1963), 27.Google Scholar
43 The New York Times, 1 01 1964.Google Scholar
44 UN. Security Council, Official Records, 1096th meeting, 19 February 1964, para. 18, 21.Google Scholar
45 UN. Security Council, Official Records, Res. 186 in doc. S/5575, 4 March 1964.
46 Ibid.
47 UN. Security Council, Document S/5950, 307.
48 Richmond, Oliver, “Peacekeeping and Peacemaking in Cyprus 1974–1994,” Cyprus Review 2 (Fall 1994): 7–42;Google ScholarJoseph, , “The International Power Broker,” 27;Google ScholarWolfe, James H., “The United Nations and the Cyprus Question,” in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and Its Resolution, ed. Salem, Norma (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 229.Google Scholar
49 UN. Security Council, 7 December 1989, Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 1 June-4 December 1989(S/21010), 3.Google Scholar
50 “President Johnson's Letter to Prime Minister İnönü,” 386.
51 Milliyet, 4 09 1964;Google Scholar “Acheson Plan II,” NSCHF.
52 U.N. Security Council, “Report of the Secretary General S/5950,” Official Records, Supplement for July, August, and September 1964, 300.
53 U.N. Security Council, Document S/5950, 333; see also Patrick, , Political Geography, 107.Google Scholar
54 U.N. Document A/5552/ADD.I.
55 U.N. Security Council, Official Records, Res. 186 in Doc. S/5575, 4 March 1964.
56 U.N. Security Council, 26 March 1965, Report of the United Nations Mediator on Cyprus to the Secretary-General (S/6253); see also Mandell, Brian, “The Cyprus Conflict: Explaining Resistance to Resolution,” in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict, 211.Google Scholar
57 U.N. Security Council, 10 June 1966, Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 11 March to 10 June 1996 (S/7350), 49.
58 U.N. Security Council, Document 8248 (1967).
59 Cumhuriyet, 17 11 1967.Google Scholar
60 Adams, Thomas W., Cottrell, Alvin J., Cyprus: Between East and West (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 71.Google Scholar
61 The New York Times, 1 12 1967, 1;Google ScholarCumhuriyet, 1 12 1967.Google Scholar
62 Cumhuriyet, 1 12 1967;Google ScholarThe New York Times, 5 12 1967, 2.Google Scholar
63 Cumhuriyet, 5 12 1967.Google Scholar
64 ibid., 30 December 1967.
65 Poliviou, Polyvios G., Cyprus: Conflict and Negotiation: 1960–1980 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980), 59.Google Scholar
66 Ibid., 62.
67 Ibid., 265–315; Attalides, Michael A., Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 103;Google ScholarStavrinides, , The Cyprus Conflict, 112;Google ScholarSarica, Murat et al. , Kibns Sorunu (The Cyprus Problem) (Istanbul: Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1975), 163.Google Scholar
68 Stavrinides, , The Cyprus Conflict, 112;Google ScholarAttalides, , Cyprus, 103.Google Scholar
69 Ertekun, Munir N., The Cyprus Dispute (Oxford: The University Press, 1981), 28.Google Scholar
70 Karnow, Stanley, “The Indispensable Man: An Interview with Makarios,” The New Republic, 14 09 1974.Google Scholar
71 Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Middle East (hereafter FBIS/ME), 16 07 1974, 3.Google Scholar
72 Cyprus Mail, Nicosia, , 17 07 1975;Google Scholar see also Stern, Laurence, The Wrong Horse: The Politics of Intervention and the Failure of American Diplomacy (New York: Times Books, 1977), 79.Google Scholar
73 For details, see Bölükbaşi, Suha, The Superpowers and the Third World: Turkish–American Relations and Cyprus (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1988), 167–90.Google Scholar
74 Article 4 of the Geneva Declaration of 30 07 1974Google Scholar, reprinted in Ertekun, , The Cyprus Dispute, 249; FBIS/ME, 20 August 1974, 14Google Scholar; FBIS/ME, 6 August 1974, 3.
75 UN. General Assembly, 24th Session, 1 11 1974Google Scholar, Res. 3212 (A/L. 739/Add.l).
76 For the text, see Faulds, Andrew, ed., Excerpta Cypriafor Today (London: K. Rustem and Brother, 1988), 165.Google Scholar
77 Cleridhis, Glavkos, Cyprus: My Deposition (Nicosia: Ailthia Publishing, 1992), 4: 276–77;Google ScholarNecatigil, Zaim, The Cyprus Question and the Turkish Position in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
78 Ertekun, , The Cyprus Dispute, 25–44.Google Scholar
79 Ibid.
80 Ibid.; see also Patrick, , Political Geography, for the Turkish ownership of land.Google Scholar
81 Ibid.
82 UN. Document S/13369.
83 See McDonald, Robert, “The Problem of Cyprus,” Adelphi Papers 234 (Winter 1988/1989): 25.Google Scholar
84 Keashly, Loraleigh and Fisher, Ronald J., “Towards a Contingency Approach to Third Party Intervention in Regional Conflict: A Cyprus Illustration,” International Journal 45 (Spring 1990): 450;CrossRefGoogle ScholarWolfe, , “The United Nations,” 236.Google Scholar
85 Berridge, , Return to the United Nations, 99.Google Scholar
86 BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts (hereafter BBC/SWB), 14 12 1981, C/2.Google Scholar
87 U.N. Document A/37/253; see also U.N. Year Book 37 (1983), 245.Google Scholar
88 Joseph, , “The International Power,” 31.Google Scholar
89 For the full text, see BBC/SWB, 16 11 1983Google Scholar, C/4-C/6.
90 UN. Security Council Resolution No. 541, 18 11 1983Google Scholar, S/PV 2497, app. 4.
91 Cyprus Mail (Nicosia), 20 01 1984.Google Scholar
92 Yearbook of the U.N. 38 (1984), 242–43.Google Scholar
93 For the texts of the drafts, see Necatigil, , The Cyprus Question, 332–35; BBC/SWB, 22 01 1985Google Scholar.
94 Necatigil, , The Cyprus Question, 332–35; BBC/SWB, 22 01 1985Google Scholar.
95 Wolfe, , “The United Nations,” 238.Google Scholar
96 U.N. Security Council, 06 1985, Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 13 December 1984 to 11 June 1985 (S/17227/Add.l), 3Google Scholar.
97 BBC/SWB, 24 02 1988Google Scholar, C/1; BBC/SWB, 2 March 1988, C/1–2.
98 Athens Home Service, 31 01 1988Google Scholar, in BBC/SWB, 2 February 1988, C/l.
99 “Negotiations on Cyprus Aim at a Settlement by June 1989,” UN Chronicle 25 (12 1988): 34.Google Scholar
100 “Report of the Secretary-General on His Mission of Good Offices,” S/21183, 8 03 1990, 4Google Scholar.
101 Turkish Daily News, 8 03 1990, 2.Google Scholar
102 Milliyet, 13 09 1990, 15.Google Scholar
103 Featherstone, K., “Cyprus and the European Union: What Kind of Membership,” Cyprus Review 7 (1995): 69–76;Google Scholar Home Page of Greece's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “The Cyprus Issue,” 1996, 7.Google Scholar
104 Home Page, “The Cyprus Issue,” 7Google Scholar.
105 Alemdar, Sakir, “International Aspects of the Cyprus Problem,” The Political Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus, ed. Dodd, Clement H. (Cambridgeshire: Eothen Press, 1993), 94.Google Scholar
106 Alemdar, , “International Aspects,” 93;Google ScholarBerridge, , “Peacekeeping and Peacemaking,” 27.Google Scholar
107 See Home Page, “The Cyprus Issue,” 7Google Scholar.
108 Turkish Probe (Ankara), 12 01 1996, 22.Google Scholar
109 Ibid., 29 March 1996, 4–5.
110 Milliyet, 30 05 1991, 13.Google Scholar
111 “Report of the Secretary-General,” S/24472, 21 08 1992.Google Scholar
112 Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (in Greek), 8 June 1991, in FBIS/WE, 10 06 1991, 40.Google Scholar
113 Anatolia, , 1 June 1991, in FBIS/WE, 10 06 1991, 55.Google Scholar
114 See “Report of the Secretary-General,” S/23780, 3 04 1992, 5.Google Scholar
115 UN. Security Council Resolution 750, 10 04 1992, 2.Google Scholar
116 Richmond, “Peacekeeping and Peacemaking,” 24.Google Scholar
117 See Secretary-General, , “Set of Ideas on an Overall Framework Agreement on Cyprus,” 7.Google Scholar
118 Ibid.
119 U.N. Council, Security, “Report of the Secretary-General,” S/24830, 19 11 1992, 4–5, 12, 14–15.Google Scholar
120 Ibid., 63.
121 See Secretary-General, , “Set of Ideas,” 7;Google Scholar see also Theophylactou, Demetrios A., “A ‘German Solution’ for Cyprus's Reunification of United Nations Enforcement of Peace,” Mediterranean Quarterly (Summer 1995): 42.Google Scholar
122 See U.N. Security Council, “Report of the Secretary-General,” S/26026, 1 07 1993, 11–13.Google Scholar
123 Ibid., 16.
124 Cumhuriyet, 20 05 1993, 1.Google Scholar
125 Ibid., 26 May 1993, 6.
126 Ibid., 1 June 1993, 7; “Report of the Secretary-General,” S/1994/262, 4 March 1994.
127 Filelefleros (Nicosia), 26 July 1993.Google Scholar
128 For the functionalist approach, see Mitrany, David, A Working Peace System, 4th ed. (London: National Peace Council, 1946), 14–18, 28, 34–35.Google Scholar
129 Fisher, Ronald J., “Conclusion: Paths Towards a Peaceful Cyprus,” in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict, 253.Google Scholar