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² See, for instance, Hanak, H., Soviet Foreign Policy Since the Death of Stalin (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972)Google Scholar; Mackintosh, J.M., Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy (London: Oxford University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Ulan, Adam, Expansion and Coexistence, The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1967 (New York: Praeger, 1968)Google Scholar; Golan, Galia, Soviet Policies in the Middle East from World War Two to Gorbachev (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Haikal, Muhammad H., Milaffat al-Suways(Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram, 1986)Google Scholar; idem, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972)Google Scholar;Klieman, Aaron S., Soviet Russia and the Middle East (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Smolansky, Oles, The Soviet Union and the Arab East Under Khrushchev (New Brunswick, N.J.: Associated University Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Yodfat, Aryeh, Arab Politics in the Soviet Mirror (Jerusalem: IUP, 1973).Google Scholar

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⁴ ibid., 123.

⁵ On the relations between the two countries under the Wafdist government, see in detail in Ginat, Rami, The Soviet Union and Egypt 1945–55 (London: Frank Cass, 1993), 107–55Google Scholar. See also al-Mursi, Fuʿā, alʿAIāqat al-Misriyya al-Sufyātlyya 1943–1956 (Cairo: Dār al-Thaqāfa al-Jadida, n.d.), 93–120Google Scholar. Fuʾad al- Mursi was one of the founders and leaders of the Egyptian Communist Party in the 1950s. He was alsoa prominent figure within the leftist circle which joined Nasser's establishment in the mid-1960s. In the early 1970s, al-Mursi and Ismaʿil Sabri ʿAbdallah joined Sadat's cabinet and thus were the first former communists in Egypt to becomeministers. However, Sadat's honeymoon with the Egyptian left came to an end in the mid-1970s. The friction derived from Sadat's tilt toward a free-market economy and limited relations with the Soviet Union. Left-wing personnel were removed from key positions.

⁶ Hamrūsh, Qissat Thawrat 23 Yūuliyū, 61.

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⁹ In November 1928, the USSR recognized the complete independence and sovereignty of the new state of Yemen in a treaty of friendship and trade signed in Sana, the capital of Yemen. Trade agreements had also been signed with Turkey, Persia, and Afghanistan. Earlier than that, in 1924, Moscow had established diplomatic representations with Hejaz and did the same in 1926 with the newly united Nejd-Hejaz (which became Saudi Arabia in 1932). The relations between the two countries reached their climax in 1932, when Prince Faysal made an official visit to the USSR. Nevertheless, Soviet missions were withdrawn from both countries in 1938 as a result of lack of activity. See Ginat, , The Soviet Union and Egypt, 6Google Scholar; Roʿi, Yaacov, “Soviet Views on the Middle East, 1919–1939,” in The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1919–1939, ed. Dann, Uriel (New York and London: Holmes & Meier, 1988), 305.Google Scholar

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¹⁷ See, for instance, Ginat, The Soviet Union and Egypt; Roʾi, Encroachment; idem, Soviet Decision Making in Practice (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1980)Google Scholar. See also Shulman, M.D., Stalin's Foreign Policy Reappraised (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1985).Google Scholar

¹⁸ E1-Hussini, Soviet-Egyptian Relations, xvii.

¹⁹ Heikal, Mohamed, The Sphinx and the Commissar (New York and London: Collins, 1978), 50.Google Scholar

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²¹ See a copy of the memorandum submitted to King Farouk by Prime Minister Nahhas Pasha on 14 March 1943, in telegram 304 from British Embassy, Cairo, 27 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1684. See also al-Mursi, al-ʿAlāqāt al-Misriyya al-Sufyātiyya, 44.

²² Dispatch 50 (C.S.178.C/3/37) from Sir M. Lampson, Cairo, 16 January 1938, FO371/22001, J356/256/16.

²³ Dispatch 817 (C.S.178.C/1/38) from M. Lampson, Cairo, 8 July 1938, FO371/22001, J2821/356/16.

²⁴ Dispatch 968 (C.S.I78/2/38) from Bateman, British Embassy, Cairo, 15 August 1938, FO371/22001, J3352/356/16.

²⁵ Dispatch 1253 (C.S.I78/3/38) from Bateman, Cairo, 26 November 1938, FO371/22001, J4489/356/16.

²⁶ See telegram 304. See also al-Mursi, , al-ʿAlāqāt al-Misriyya al-Sufyātiyya, 44–46.Google Scholar

²⁷ Telegram 3862 from Lampson, Cairo, 8 December 1941, FO371/27511, J3855/3855/16.

²⁸ Telegrams 3880 and 3843 from Lampson, Cairo, 9 and 11 December 1941, FO371/27511, J3866/3855/16 and J3937/3855/16.

²⁹ Maisky, , Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 371Google Scholar. According to Nikolai Novikov, the first Soviet minister to Cairo, Nahhas Pasha, Egypt's prime minister, who held a meeting with him a few weeks after his arrival in Cairo, confirmed that it was Egypt that initiated the establishment of diplomatic relations with the USSR. See Novikov, N.V., Vospominaniya Diplomata Zapiski: 1938–1947 (Moskva: IPL, 1989), 153Google Scholar. See also Hamrūsh, , Qissat Thawrat 23 Yūliyū, 61.Google Scholar

³⁰ Telegram 613 from Lampson, Cairo, 25 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1398. According to Fuʾad al-Mursi, who based his conclusion on official documents of the Egyptian Foreign Ministry, it was Maisky who initiated this move. However, al-Mursi stressed that both Egypt and the USSR had their own motives to promote this dialogue. Egypt, said Mursi, was motivated first and foremost by its economic interests, and also hoped that the USSR would support its struggle internationally for independence. As for the USSR, said al-Mursi, diplomatic relations with Egypt could have increased the number of countries in the Middle East that recognized communist Russia. Diplomatic representation of the USSR in this sensitive region adjacent to its borders could have served Soviet interests. See al-Mursi, al-ʿAlaqat al-Misriyya al-Sufyātiyya, 50–51.

³¹ Telegram 613 from Lampson, Cairo, 25 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1398.

³² Ibid.

³³ Ibid.

³⁴ Telegram 431 from Cairo, 26 February 1943, FO371/35589, J986. cUthman appreciated that Maisky's offer was apparently unofficial. About a week later, the Foreign Office instructed its embassy in Cairo to ask the Egyptian government to find out whether Maisky's approach was made on instructions of his government and was not a purely personal intervention. See telegram 380 from Foreign Office to Cairo, 4 March 1943, FO371/35589, J986/954/16.

³⁵ Telegram 431.

³⁶ Telegram 458 from Lampson, Cairo, 3 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1032.

³⁷ See record of conversation between Hasanain Pasha and T. Shone, in telegram 250 from British Embassy, Cairo, 9 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1377.

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁸ See telegram 304.

⁴⁰ Ibid.

⁴¹ See minutes submitted with FO371/35589, J1398, 26 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1401 in telegram 614 from Lampson, Cairo.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Telegram 457 from Lampson, Cairo, 3 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1032.

⁴⁴ Telegram 614 from Lampson, Cairo, 22 March 1943, FO371/35589, J1401. Words in the same spirit were said by Lampson in a later conversation with Hasanain which took place in early May. See telegram 944 from Lampson, Cairo, FO371/35589, J2082.

⁴⁵ Telegram 614.

⁴⁶ Telegram 708 from Lampson, Cairo, 9 April 1943, FO371/35589, J1604.

⁴⁷ Telegram 606 from Foreign Office to Cairo, 9 April 1943, FO371/35589, J1604.

⁴⁸ Telegram 625 from Foreign Office to Cairo, 13 April 1943, FO371/35589, J1604.

⁴⁹ On the internal political crises in Egypt in 1943, see Vatikiotis, P.J., The History of Modern Egypt (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1991), 354–55.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Telegram 781 from Lampson, 19 April 1943, FO371/35589, J1782/954/16.

⁵¹ Telegram 879 from Lampson, 2 May 1943, FO371/35589, J1942.

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Telegram 891 from Lampson, Cairo, 3 May 1943, FO371/35589, J1971.

⁵⁴ Telegram 915 from Lampson, Cairo, 6 May 1943, FO371/35589, J2029.

⁵⁵ Telegram 891.

⁵⁶ Telegram 760 from Foreign Office to Cairo, 5 May 1943, FO371/35589, J1971/954/16.

⁵⁷ Telegram 952 from Lampson, Cairo, 9 May 1943, FO371/35589, J2086.

⁵⁸ Vatikiotis, , The History of Modern Egypt, 349–55Google Scholar. See also Kedourie, Elie, The Chatham House Version and Other Middle Eastern Studies (Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1984),217–18Google Scholar; Lapidus, Ira M., A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 624.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Vatikiotis, , The History of Modern Egypt, 350–51.Google Scholar See also Hourani, Albert, A History of the Arab People (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 355.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Quoted in Botman, Selma, The Rise of Egyptian Communism 1939–1970 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 33.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Ginat, , The Soviet Union and Egypt, 24–25Google Scholar. See also Botman, , The Rise of Egyptian Communism,35–58Google Scholar; Ismael, Tareq Y. and El-Saʿid, Rifaʿat, The Communist Movement in Egypt 1920–1988 (New York:Syracuse University Press, 1990), 32–59;Google ScholarʿAbbās, RaʾufHamid, al-Haraka al-ʿUmmāliyyafi Misr, 1899–1952 (Cairo: Dār al-Katib al-ʿArabi, 1968), 418–19Google Scholar; Heikal, , Sphinx and Commissar, 42–45.Google Scholar

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⁶³ On the rivalry between King Farouk and Nahhas Pasha throughout the process of the establishment of the Arab League, see ibid., chap. 5.

⁶⁴ Telegram 1071 from Lord Killearn, Cairo, 26 May 1943, FO371/35589, J2377.

⁶⁵ Telegram 915.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ Ibid.

⁶⁸ Telegram 1071.

⁶⁹ Telegram 1076 from Killearn, Cairo, 26 May 1943, FO371/35589, J2378/954/16.

⁷⁰ See minute by Warner, Foreign Office, 21 June 1943, FO371/35589.

⁷¹ In the beginning of 1943, Makram ʿUbaid, the former finance minister in Nahhas's cabinet who resigned from the Wafdist Party and formed in July 1942 a new party called al-Kutla al-Wafdiyya almustaqilla, published his famous account known as the “Black Book” (al-kitāb al-aswad), which dealt mainly with the disclosure of Wafdist graft and corruption in government and politics. This account was a clear indictment of Nahhas Pasha. On the Nahhas-ʿUbaid power struggle, see Vatikiotis, , The History of Modern Egypt, 354–55.Google Scholar

⁷² See minute by Warner.

⁷³ Telegram 1276 from Lord Killearn, Cairo, 22 June 1943, FO371/35589, J2378/954/16. On the Soviet rejection of Egypt's pre-conditions, see Maisky, , Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 372.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Telegram 658 from British Embassy, Cairo, 9 July 1943, FO371/35590, J31O3. Detailed information about Maisky's visit in Cairo can be seen in Maisky, , Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 372–73. See also a personal letter from W. K. Miles, British Embassy, Cairo, to Anthony Eden, FO, 15 July 1943, FO371/35590, J3864.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ See the original copy of the letter in French in enclosure 1 to telegram 658. See also Maisky, , Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 373–75.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ See the full text of his letter in enclosure 2 to telegram 658. See also Maisky, Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 373–75.

⁷⁷ See full copy of the original letter in French in enclosure 1 to dispatch 505 from Killearn, Cairo, to Eden, FO, 5 May 1944, FO371/41358, J1643/1197/16. See also the content of Maisky's letter in Maisky,Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 382.

⁷⁸ See a full copy of the original letter in French in enclosure 2 to telegram 505.

⁷⁹ Telegram 1631 from Killearn, Cairo, 26 August 1943, FO371/35590, J3683/954/16. Telegram 1713 from Shone, Cairo, 9 September 1943, ibid., J3887/954/16. See also Le Journal d'Égypte (Cairo), 7 September 1943, and Pravda (Moscow), 9 September 1943. Maisky, , Memoirs of a Soviet Ambassador, 384–89.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ See minute by Scrivener, FO, 28 July 1943, FO371/35590, J403/954/16.

⁸¹ See personal letter from Miles to Eden, FO371/35590, J3864.

⁸² See personal letter from Anthony Eden to Miles, 30 July 1943, FO371/35590. On this issue, see also minute by P. Scrivener, Egyptian Department, FO, 24 July 1943, FO371/35590, J3864.

⁸³ Telegram 1200 from Killearn, Cairo, 30 December 1943, FO371/41358, J202. Novikov was born in Leningrad in 1903 and was graduated from the Leningrad Institute of Oriental Studies in 1930. He joined the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in 1938 and a year later he became the director of the NearEast department there. See also Novikov, , Vospominaniya Diplomata Zapiski, 153–55.Google Scholar