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⁵ The name of the law is generally rendered in English as the Ottoman Law of Family Rights. In the Ottoman Parliament it was referred to by deputies as Hukūk-ı Aile Kanunu (the Family Law). The official title of the Ottoman law was Hukūk- ı Aile Kararnāmesi, Münākehāt–Müfārekat, or the Family Law Decree, Marriages–Divorces.

⁶ Can, Lâle, “The Protection Question: Central Asians and Extraterritoriality in the Late Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 48, no. 4 (2016): 680–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Berats, or letters of extraterritorial protection, were crucial to this effort.

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¹² Cin, Halil, İslam ve Osmanlı Hukukunda Evlenme (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1974), 305Google Scholar. Conservative Muslims critics during World War I were led by Sadreddin Efendi, a theology faculty member at the Darülfünun (renamed Istanbul University in 1933) who published prolifically in the newspaper Sebiülreşad. See Yazici, Abdurrahman, “Osmanlı Hukuk-i Aile Kararnamesi (1917) ve Sadreddin Efendi'nin Eleştirileri,” EKEV Akademi Dergisi 19, no. 62 (2015): 567–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Cankirli Sadreddin Efendi,” in Turkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, vol. EK–1 (Istanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, 2016), 285–86; and Küçüktiryaki, Ahmet Yasin, Osmanlı Aile Hukuku: Gelenek ve Modern Arasında Hukuk-ı Aile Kararnamesi ve Sadreddin Efendi'nin Eleştirileri (Istanbul: İz Yayıncılık, 2017)Google Scholar.

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¹⁶ Aydin, M. Akif, İslam-Osmanlı Aile Hukuku (Istanbul: İlahiyat Fakültesi Vakfı Yayınları, 1985), 163Google Scholar. Bozkurt was a lawyer, member of the Ottoman Parliament, and minister of justice in the early Republican period who had an academic interest in the history of the capitulations. See Mahmut Esat (Bozkurt), Osmanlı Kapitülasyonları Rejimi Üzerine: Tarih ve Metinlerin Işığında Kapitülasyonlarin Hukuki Özellikleri (Ankara: Türk Hukuk Kurumu, 2008), a translation of Bozkurt's 1928 French-language doctoral dissertation from the Université de Fribourg. The commission's other members were the Fetvahane's chief clerk (mümeyyiz) and professor Hafiz Sevket Efendi, Mansurizade Said Bey of Mentese, Ali Bas Hanbe Efendi, a member of the Şura-yı Devlet and vakıf court judge Akhisarli Mustafa Fevzi Efendi. The Civil Code Commission, Family Code Commission, and Commercial Code Commission together were given 300,000 kuruş for their work. Meclis-i Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi (hereafter MMZC), Term 3 Year of Session 3, vol. 1 (11 Mart 1333/11 March 1917), 179.

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²² Metinsoy, Elif Mahir, Ottoman Women during World War I: Everyday Experiences, Politics, and Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 188–91Google Scholar. On wartime economic pressures that contributed to the HAK, see Küçüktiryaki, Ahmet Yasin, “Osmanlı Devletinde Tanzimat Sonrası Aile Hukuku Alanındaki Gelişmeler ve Hukuk-i Aile Kararnamesi,” Hitit Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 13 (2014): 185–87Google Scholar.

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²⁴ Martykánová, “Matching Sharia,” 166.

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²⁶ Toprak, Zafer, “The Family, Feminism, and the State during the Young Turk Period, 1908–1918,” in Première Rencontre Internationale sur l'Empire Ottoman et la Turquie Moderne, ed. Eldem, Edhem (Istanbul: Édition ISIS, 1991), 449–52Google Scholar.

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²⁸ Emanuel Emanuelidi Efendi (d. 1943 in Athens) was an Ottoman Greek lawyer and politician born in Kayseri. He represented Aydın in the Ottoman Parliament on a CUP ticket from 1911 to 1918 and was a member of the pro-Ottomanist faction in the parliament. After 1922 he was a member of Eleftherios Venizelos’ Greek Liberal Party and served as governor of Western Macedonia and in Venizelos’ cabinet as Minister of Social Care from 1928–1931. For a recent interpretation of Emanuelidi Efendi's role between Ottomanist and Greek Irredentist politics in the Late Ottoman Empire see Kechriotis, Vangelis, “On the Margins of Nationalist Historiography: The Greek İttihatçı Emmanouil Emmanouilidis--Opportunist or Ottoman Patriot?” in Untold Histories of the Middle East: Recovering Voices from the 19th and 20th Centuries, ed. Singer, Amy et al. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 124–42Google Scholar.

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³⁰ The National Archives, London (hereafter TNA) WO 106/1419, transcript of Congres General du Comite Union et Progres de 1333.

³¹ On the role of 19th-century state secularism in reproducing religious difference through the creation of “minorities” and the persistent nature of this dynamic in post-Ottoman states, see Mahmood, Saba, Religious Difference in a Secular Age: A Minority Report (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018)Google Scholar, especially chapter 1.

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³³ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in Ansay, Medeni Kanunumuzun 25 inci Yıldönümü, 18.

³⁴ Elmacı, İttihat Terakki ve Kapitülasyonlar, 113. On the Decree on Shariʿa Judicial Procedure, see Akman, Ahmet, “Tanzimat Sonrası Osmanlı Usûl Hukukunda Gelişmeler,” MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 8, no. 1 (2019): 431–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁸ HHStA PA XII 466 Liasse LII, no. 7907 (31 October 1916).

⁵⁹ Morgenthau, Henry, Ambassador Morgenthau's Story (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1918), 116Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Quoted in Ergil, “A Reassessment,” 68.

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⁷⁴ Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 129.

⁷⁵ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 94/B (17 November 1917).

⁷⁶ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918).

⁷⁷ Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 271–84

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⁸¹ Ibid.

⁸² Ibid.

⁸³ Berkes, The Development of Secularism, 417–18. The HAK is exemplary of how shari`a law has historically been dynamic in its response to contemporary social, political, and economic issues; but its significance as a code has been overstated. Historical iterations of shari`a law are all codes unto themselves; the HAK marks a turning point into greater legal stagnation on issues of family law than had been witnessed up to the point of its passage.

⁸⁴ Halil Menteşe'nin Anıları, ed. İsmail Arar (Istanbul: Hürriyet Vakfı Yayınları, 1986), 227.

⁸⁵ Supplement to HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918), “Takrir et Memorandum du Patriarcat Oecumeénique relatifs à la question des mariages.”

⁸⁶ II. Tertip Düstur, Cilt 9 (25 Teşrinievvel 1333/25 October 1917), 763.

⁸⁷ For regulations specific to Jews, see articles 20–26 in II. Tertip Düstur, Cilt 9 (25 Teşrinievvel 1333/25 October 1917), 764–65 and for Christians, see articles 27–32 in ibid., 765. On divorce policies specific to Jews, see articles 59–62 in ibid., 769 and to Christians see articles 63–68 in ibid. and 78–79 in ibid., 771.

⁸⁸ Ibid., 766.

⁸⁹ On kefāet see articles 45–51 in ibid., 767–8. For dowry, see articles 80–91 in ibid., 771–72.

⁹⁰ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in Ansay, Medeni Kanunumuzun 25 inci Yıldönümü, 18.

⁹¹ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in ibid., 21.

⁹² Ibid. On the role of secularism in framing clerical involvement in family life, see chapter 4 in Mahmood, Religious Difference.

⁹³ HHStA PA XII/467, no. 94/B (17 November 1917).

⁹⁴ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 1 (12 January 1918).

⁹⁵ Supplement to HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918), “Takrir et Memorandum du Patriarcat Oecumeénique relatifs aà la question des mariages.”

⁹⁶ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in Ansay, Medeni Kanunumuzun 25 inci Yıldönümü, 19.

⁹⁷ Supplement to HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918), “Takrir et Memorandum du Patriarcat Oecumeénique relatifs aà la question des mariages.”

⁹⁸ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918).

⁹⁹ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in Ansay, Medeni Kanunumuzun 25 inci Yıldönümü, 20.

¹⁰⁰ Zandi-Sayek, Ottoman Izmir, 160.

¹⁰¹ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 94/C (17 November 1917).

¹⁰² II. Tertip Düstur, Cilt 9 (25 Teşrinievvel 1333/25 October 1917), 767. Pallavicini's critique can be found in HHStA PA XII/467, no. 94/B (17 November 1917).

¹⁰³ Mazza, Roberto, “Churches at War: The Impact of the First World War on the Christian Institutions of Jerusalem, 1914–20,” Middle Eastern Studies 45, no. 2 (2009): 216–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The Vatican was not an independent state until 1929, but worked alongside and through the Great Powers towards its political aims.

¹⁰⁴ PAAA Konstantinopel 289/R7030 (8 December 1917).

¹⁰⁵ PAAA Konstantinopel 289/R2595 (2 December 1917).

¹⁰⁶ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 94/C (17 November 1917).

¹⁰⁷ Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 163.

¹⁰⁸ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 105 (22 December 1917).

¹⁰⁹ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 6 (19 January 1918).

¹¹⁰ Esbab-ı Mucibe Lāyihası, in Ansay, Medeni Kanunumuzun 25 inci Yıldönümü, 21.

¹¹¹ HHStA PA XII 467, no. 94/C (17 November 1917).

¹¹² Ahmad, “Ottoman Perceptions,” 18.

¹¹³ Elmacı, İttihat Terakki ve Kapitülasyonlar, 47.

¹¹⁴ Arıkan, İbrahim, Osmanlı Ordusunda bir Nefer: Bir Mehmetçiğin Çanakkale-Galiçya-Filistin Cephesi Anıları (Istanbul: Timaş, 2010), 21Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ Quoted in Ahmad, “Ottoman Perceptions,” 18.

¹¹⁶ “The Attempt of Turkey to Abrogate the Capitulations,” American Journal of International Law 8, no. 4 (Oct. 1914): 873.