^{page 67 note 1} For Strato's position see Cicero, , De Natura Deorum, vol. 1, part xiii, p. 35;Google Scholarcf., Seneca apud Augustine, The City of God, 4, 10.Google Scholar

^{page 68 note 1} Idyâ ‘Ul„m ad-Dîn, vol. II, part iii (Cairo, A.H. 1326), vol. I, p. 78;Google Scholarcf., Maurice Bouyges, Essai De Chronologie Des Oeuvres de Al-Ghazali, ed. Michel, Allard (Beirut: Catholic Press, 1959), no. 25, where important marginal notes are cited.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 1} Ar-Risâlatu'l-Qudsiyya (‘The Jerusalem Letter’), ed. and trans. Tibawi, A. L., Islamic Quarterly, vol. 9 (1965), pp. 3–4Google Scholar (= I hyâ ‘Ul„m ad-Dîn, vol. II, part iii), 1. I. For the importance of the question whether God exists, cf., Philo, Special Laws, vol. 1, part vi, p. 32. Logically enough the question of God's existence is the first point of theology raised by 1E96;;azâlî in the Idyâ.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 2} Qur'ân, LVIII, 6–16, 164; LXXI, 15–18, 58–83.

^{page 69 note 3} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , p. 80 = trans. p. 97.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 4} Ibid. p. 80, 1. I.

^{page 69 note 5} Madnun ad-Saghîr, Q. 6.

^{page 69 note 6} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , p. 80, 1. 2.Google Scholar

^{page 69 note 7} See Ma'ârij al-Quds (Cairo, 1927), p. 2.Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 1} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , p. 80, ll. 15 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 2} Al-Munqidh; min ad-Dalâl (‘Deliverance from Error’, Ghazâlî's spiritual autobiograpby), ed. with French trans. Farid Jabre (Beirut: UNESCO, International Commission for Tranlation of Great Works, 1959), pp. 5–6 = French trans. PP. 108–9 = English trans. of Wm., Montgomery Watt in The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali (2nd ed., London: George Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 68–9.Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 3} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , loc. cit.; cf. Qur'ân, XIV, 10; XXXI, 25; XXX, 30.Google Scholar

^{page 70 note 4} Ibid. p. 80, 1. 23.

^{page 70 note 5} Etienne, Gilson, Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages (New York: Scribner, 1938), p. 6.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 1} Tertullian, , On Prescription against Heretics,Google Scholar vii, quoted in Gilson, , op. cit. p. 9.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 2} Qur'ân, IV, 154; XVI, 110; XLVII, 18, quoted by Ghazâlî, , Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalâl,Google Scholar ed. Jabre, , p. 40 = French trans., p. 102 = trans.Google ScholarWatt, , pp. 62–3.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 3} Tradition quoted by Ghazâlî, Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalâl, ed. Jabre, , p. 11 = French trans., p. 61Google Scholar = trans. Watt, , p. 21; cf. Qur'an, XXIII, 55; XXX, 31 quoted Ghazâlî in his autobiography one page above, loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 4} For the origins of Islamic diversity see the opening pages of Ash 'ari, Maqâlât al-Islâmiyyîn, ed. Ritter, .Google Scholar For the inadequacy of positive religion see Ibn, Tufayl, Hayy Ibn Yaqzân, ed. with French trans. Leon, Gauthier (Beirut: Catholic Press, 1936) (first edition igoo). A new English translation by the present writer is in the press.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 5} âGilson, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 71 note 6} Al-Munqidh min-ad-Dfalâl, ed. Jabre, , p. 15 = French trans., p. 66 = trans.Google ScholarWatt, , p. 27.Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 1} loc. cit.

^{page 72 note 2} Al-Munqidh min-ad-Dalâl, ed. Jabre, , pp. 10–11 = French trans., p. 61 = trans.Google ScholarWatt, , p. 21.Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 3} Augustine, Commentary on St John, trans. Browne, H., XXIX, 6:Google Scholar ‘Understanding is the reward of faith. Therefore seek not to understand that thou mayest believe, but believe that thou mayest understand.’ Quoted in Gilson, , op. cit. p. 19; cf. Augustine, On Free Will, ii, 2. 6. Gilson notes the need in the ‘spiritual family’ of Augustine to progress ‘from Revelation to reason’, pp. 15–21;Google Scholarcf., Gilson'sThe Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (New York, 1936),Google Scholar ch. 2. The observation fits Ghazâlî perfectly. Cf., Iamblichus, De Mysteriis,Google Scholar iii; and Aquinas, , Summa Theologica, 1,Google Scholar Q. 2, art. I. See also Wensinck, A. J., La Pensée de Ghazzali (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1940), pp. 31–4;Google ScholarGeorge, Hourani, ‘The Dialogue Between Al-Ghazali and the Philosophers on the Origin of the World’, Muslim World, vol. 48 (1958), pp. 183–91, 308–14.Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 4} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , p. 80, 1. 23.Google Scholar

^{page 72 note 5} Ibid. p. 80, 11. 24–9.

^{page 73 note 1} Timaeus, 27–8.Google Scholar

^{page 73 note 2} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , pp. 80, 11. 26–81,Google Scholar 1.7; cf., Ma'ârij al-Quds, pp. 201–2.Google Scholar

^{page 73 note 3} Ibid. p. 81, 11. 18–19.

^{page 74 note 1} Ibid. II. I–II.

^{page 74 note 2} Ibid. II. 4–8.

^{page 74 note 3} Ibid. 2, p. 81, 1.20.

^{page 75 note 1} Fadâ'ih al-Bâtiniyya (‘The Shame of the Allegorists’), ed. Abdur-Rahmân, Badaw (Cairo, 1964), pp. 80–1.Google Scholar

^{page 75 note 2} Fadâ'ih al-Bâtiniyya, ed. Badawî, , pp. 81–2;Google Scholarcf.Ghazâ1â's Maqâsid al-Falâsifa (‘The Aims of the Philosophers’),Google Scholar ed. Dunya, S. (Cairo, 1962), pp. 96 ff.Google Scholar for a fuller exposition of Euclid's first proposition. For the completeness of the disjunction between the world's eternity and its having ‘come to be’ see Maqâsid al-Falâsifa, ed. Dunya, , pp. 56–7.Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 1} Idyâ ′Ul„m ad-Dîn, vol. XXXVI, bayanGoogle Scholar iii, I; cf., Ma'ârij al-Quds (‘Sacred Progress’) (Cairo, 1927), p. 204;Google Scholarcf., also Mishkât at-Anwâr, ed. Afifi, (Cairo, 1964), pp. 54, 60.Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 2} For this line of criticism see Anthony, Flew, God and Philosophy (London: Hutchinson, 1966),Google Scholar ch. IV, cf., Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, Transcendental Dialectic, chap. III, sec. vii.Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 3} Maqâsid al-Falâsifa (‘The Aims of the Philosophers’), ed. Dunya, S. (Cairo, 1961), p. 60.Google Scholar

^{page 76 note 4} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa (‘The Incoherence of the Philosophers’), Bouyges 2nd ed., vols. v, x = ed. Dunya, , pp. 146, 182Google Scholar = Ibn, Rushd, Tahâfut at-Tahâfut, ed. Bouyges, , pp. 288, 417. The translation by Simon Van Den Bergh of Ibn Rushd's work, ‘The Incoherence of the Incoherence’ (London: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Series and UNESCO International Commission for the Translation of Great Works, 1954), is keyed to the edition of Bouyges.Google Scholar

^{page 77 note 1} See Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, Bouyges, and ed. (Beirut, 1962),Google Scholar I, part ii, no. 78; cf., Shahrastânî, Nihâyatu'l-Iqdâm fî ‘Ilmi’l-Kalâm, ed. with English paraphrase by Alfred, Guillaume (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934), pp. 6 ff., 20.Google Scholar

^{page 77 note 2} Tahâfut-al-Falâsifa, x, cf. II, IV.

^{page 77 note 3} Proclus' first argument is lost in the Greek original, but its contents are known from Philoponus apud Simplicius, and the argument is extant in the Arabic fragments of Proclus, ed. Badawi, , Neo-Platonici apud Arabes, Islamica, vol. 19 (Cairo, 1955);Google Scholar cf. also Shahrastânî, , Kitâb al-Milal wa-n -Nihâl, ed. Cureton, , p. 338, where the argument is given as the first of ‘Proclus’ fallacies on the eternity of the world’.Google Scholar

^{page 78 note 1} Proclus' fourth argument for the eternity of the world, English trans. in Thomas, Taylor, The Fragments that Remain of the Lost Writings of Proclus (London, 1825), p. 39; cf. also the Arabic translation and Shahrastânî cited above.Google Scholar

^{page 78 note 2} See Ghazâlî, Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, Bouyges 2nd ed., I, no. 7, p. 50.Google Scholar

^{page 78 note 3} For Ghazâlî's fiscal imagery see Ma'ârij al-Quits, pp. 203–4 and Ihya ′Ul„m ad-Dîn, XXXV.Google Scholar

^{page 79 note 1} See Aristotle, , Metaphysics, Lambda.Google Scholar

^{page 79 note 2} See Ghazâlî, , Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, 4.Google Scholar

^{page 79 note 3} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, X.Google Scholar

^{page 79 note 4} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, x, no. I, Bouyges 2nd ed., p. 254. It is the causa efficiens, of course, which is in question. G hazâlî shows little interest in this context in the Aristotelian notion that God is a final cause.Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 1} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, x = Bouyges 2nd ed., p. 182.Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 2} Ibid. p. 110.

^{page 80 note 3} Ibn, Rushd, Tahâfut at-Tahâfut, III, ed. Bouyges, p. 151.Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 4} Al-Munqidh min-ad-Dalâl, ed. Jabre, , pp. 18–20, cf. pp. 23–4 = French trans., pp. 73–2; cf. pp. 77–8Google Scholar = trans. Watt, , pp. 31–2; cf. pp. 37–8; cf. Maqâsid al-Falâsifa, ed. Dunya, , pp. 203 ff., 286 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 5} For an attempt to mediate between creationism and etemalism—and to scale down the gravity of the issue—see Ibn Tufayl Hayy Ibn Yaqzân, ed. Gauthier, L., pp. 81–8.Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 6} See Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, VI.Google Scholar

^{page 81 note 1} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, Bouyges 2nd ed., III, nos. 1–2.Google Scholar

^{page 81 note 2} Ibid. IV, no. 2.

^{page 81 note 3} Ibid. III, no. 15.

^{page 81 note 4} Ibid. no. 16, 1. 4.

^{page 81 note 5} Ibid. part i, cf. XVII, I.

^{page 81 note 6} Ibid. no. 16, 1. 4.

^{page 81 note 7} Ibid. part i, no. 3.

^{page 82 note 1} Ibid. part ii, no. 17.

^{page 82 note 2} Ibid. no. 24.

^{page 82 note 3} Ibid. no. 25–8.

^{page 82 note 4} Ma'ârij al-Quds, pp. 201 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 5} See Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, v.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 6} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, III, part iii; cf. Van Den Bergh, note 89.2.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 7} See Shahrastânâ′ ‘ Nihâyatu'l-Iqdâm fî ‘Ilmi’l-Kalâm, ed. Guillaume, , p.21. The reduction of ontological to logical relations is a temptation to which Platonic idealism (with its Pythagorean background) will be particularly susceptible.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 8} For the contingency argument in use, see Fârâbî, ‘Book of Gems’, opening passage; Ibn, Sina, Najât, vol. 4, part i, p. 6;Google ScholarJuwayni, , Irshd, ed. Luciani, , p. I.Google Scholar For Ibn Rushd's rejection of the argument see Tahâfut at-Tahâfut, ed. Bouyges, , pp. 54–5;Google Scholar cf. Van Den Bergh's note 32.1. Van Den Bergh claims that the contingency argument is Aristotelian; and to be sure, Aristotle did argue that God must exist as the Actualizor of potential. Avicenna's notion, however, is that finite being must be determinate to be actual; thus a more active role is conceived for God than as Ground of being, a role as determinant of the qualitative and quantitative limitations without which finite being could not exist. The notion of God as a Determinant, although related to that of God as Actualizor (and, for that matter, to the notion of God as Creator, or even as prime mover), is conceptually distinct, and its development as an argument for divine existence may well be Islamic. For in Greek philosophy, as we have seen, the issue of a determinant arises in the context of a reductio ad absurdum. For a brief history of the determinant argument, see Herbert, Davidson, ‘Arguments from the Concept of Particularization in Arabic Philosophy’, Philosophy East and West, vol. 18, part 4 (10, 1968), pp. 299–314. The contingency argument, considered here by Ghazâlî is the philosophers' generalized version, where being at large rather than its particularization is the object of determination. As Ghazâlî rightly urges, the argument cannot be based on any notion that God is somehow (logically?) ‘necessary’, while the world is in the same sense ‘possible’; the only. remotely workable reading of the argument is in terms of a necessary (i.e. self-sufficient) God and a contingent world, i.e. a world incapable of establishing its own limitations a fortiori not its own existence.Google Scholar

^{page 83 note 1} Tahâfut al-Falâstfa, Bouyges and ed., IV, no. 3.Google Scholar

^{page 83 note 2} Ibid. no. 6.

^{page 83 note 3} Ibid. no. 5.

^{page 84 note 1} Ibid. X, no. 3.

^{page 84 note 2} Ibid. no. 5.

^{page 84 note 3} Ibid. no. 6–7.

^{page 84 note 4} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, IV.Google Scholar

^{page 84 note 5} Ibid. X.

^{page 84 note 6} Ibid. III.

^{page 85 note 1} Tahâfut al-Falâsifa, Bouyges 2nd ed., I, part i, b = ed. Dunya, , pp. 90 ff. = Tahâfut at-Tahâfut, ed. Bouyges, , p. 41.Google Scholar

^{page 85 note 2} Fadâ'ih al-Bâtiniyya, ed. Badawi, , p. 80.Google Scholar

^{page 85 note 3} ‘Jerusalem Letter’, ed. Tibawi, , p. 80, 1. 23.Google Scholar