Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T01:17:15.715Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Unsafe law: health, rights and the legal response to HIV

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2013

Matthew Weait
Matthew Weait*
Affiliation:
Birkbeck College, University of London
*
[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper describes the ways in which, over the past three decades, law has come to serve as an obstacle in the fight against HIV, and how it contributes to the stigmatisation of, and discrimination against, people living with the virus. It argues that in order to make unsafe law safer, policy-makers, legislators and those responsible for the interpretation and enforcement of law must base their HIV response not on populist morality but on the strong evidence base provided by three decades of clinical, scientific and social research. Drawing on that research and the author's own involvement in policy development in this area, it suggests that rights-based arguments are, while important, insufficient as the basis for delivering the changes that are necessary, discusses the difficulties involved in achieving those changes, and argues that legal scholarship and research has an important role to play in HIV activism and combating the global epidemic.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Law in Context , Volume 9 , Issue 4 , December 2013 , pp. 535 - 564
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abecasis, A. B., Geretti, A. M., Albert, J., Power, L., Weait, M. and Vandamme, A. M. (2011) ‘Science in Court: The Myth of HIV Fingerprinting,’ Lancet Infectious Diseases 11(2): 78–79.Google Scholar
Adimora, A. A. and Auerbach, J. D. (2010) ‘Structural Interventions for HIV Prevention in the United States,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 55(Supplement 2): S132–35.Google Scholar
Adler, A., Mounier-Jack, S. and Coker, R. J. (2009) ‘Late Diagnosis of HIV in Europe: Definitional and Public Health Challenges,’ Aids Care-Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/HIV 21(3): 284–93.Google Scholar
Alan, R. (2012) ‘Justifying Public Health Surveillance: Basic Interests, Unreasonable Exercise, and Privacy,’ Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 22(1): 1–33.Google Scholar
Allin, N. E. (1987–1988) ‘The AIDS Pandemic: International Travel and Immigration Restrictions and the World Health Organization's Response,’ Virginia Journal of International Law 28(4): 1043–64.Google Scholar
Altman, D. (1986) AIDS in the Mind of America, New York: Anchor Press / Doubleday.Google Scholar
Amon, J. J. and Todrys, K. W. (2008) ‘Fear of Foreigners: HIV-related Restrictions on Entry, Stay, and Residence’, Journal of the International AIDS Society 11. Available at: <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621119/>.Google Scholar
Anderson, T. (2009) ‘HIV/AIDS in Cuba: A Rights-based Analysis,’ Health and Human Rights, 11(1): 93–104.Google Scholar
Balabanova, Y., Coker, R., Atun, R. A. and Drobniewski, F. (2006) ‘Stigma and HIV infection in Russia,’ AIDS Care 18(7): 846–52.Google Scholar
Baldwin, P. (2005) Disease and Democaracy: The Industrialized World Faces AIDS. Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bandyopadhyay, N. and Banerjee, B. (1999) ‘Sex Workers in Calcutta Organize Themselves to Become Agents for Change,’ Sexual Health Exchange (2): 6–8.Google Scholar
Baral, S., Beyrer, C. and Poteat, T. (2011) ‘Human Rights, the Law, and HIV among Transgender People’, Working Paper prepared for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=93>..>Google Scholar
Basu, I., Jana, S., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Swendeman, D., Lee, S. J., Newman, P. and Weiss, R. (2004) ‘HIV Prevention among Sex Workers in India,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 36(3): 845–52.Google Scholar
Bayer, R. and Fairchild-Carrino, A. (1993) ‘AIDS and the Limits of Control: Public Health Orders, Quarantine, and Recalcitrant Behavior,’ American Journal of Public Health 83(10): 1471–76.Google Scholar
Bayer, R. and Healton, C. (1989) ‘Controlling AIDS in Cuba. The logic of quarantine,’ New England Journal of Medicine 320(15): 1022–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Bernard, E. (2008) ‘Texas Jury Concludes Saliva of HIV Positive Man a Deadly Weapon Sentenced to 35 yrs jail (16 May). Available at: <http://www.aidsmap.com/Texas-jury-concludes-saliva-of-HIV-positive-man-a-deadly-weapon-sentenced-to-35-yrs-jail/page/1430404/>..>Google Scholar
Bernard, E. J., Azad, Y., Vandamme, A. M., Weait, M. and Geretti, A. M. (2007) ‘HIV Forensics: Pitfalls and Acceptable Standards in the use of Phylogenetic Analysis as Evidence in Criminal Investigations of HIV Transmission,’ HIV Medicine 8(6): 382–87.Google Scholar
Beyrer, C. and Baral, S. (2011) MSM, ‘HIV and the Law: The Case of Gay, Bisexual and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM)’, Working Paper for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=95>..>Google Scholar
Bhaskaran, K., Hamouda, O., Sannes, M., Boufassa, F., Johnson, A. M., Lambert, P. C. and Porter, K. (2008) ‘Changes in the Risk of Death after HIV Seroconversion Compared with Mortality in the General Population,’ Journal of the American Medical Association 300(1): 51–59.Google Scholar
Biradavolu, M. R., Blankenship, K. M., Jena, A. and Dhungana, N. (2012) ‘Structural Stigma, Sex Work and HIV: Contradictions and Lessons Learnt from a Community-led Structural Intervention in Southern India,’ Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health Ii95–ii99.Google Scholar
Blankenship, K. M., Biradavolu, M. R., Jena, A. and George, A. (2010) ‘Challenging the Stigmatization of Female Sex Workers through a Community-led Structural Intervention: Learning from a Case Study of a Female Sex Worker intervention in Andhra Pradesh, India,’ AIDS Care 22(Supplement 2): 1629–36.Google Scholar
Blankenship, K. M., Bray, S. J. and Merson, M. H. (2000) ‘Structural Interventions in Public Health,’ AIDS 14(Supplement 1): S11–21.Google Scholar
Blankenship, K. M., Friedman, S. R., Dworkin, S. and Mantell, J. E. (2006) ‘Structural Interventions: Concepts, Challenges and Opportunities for Research,’ Journal of Urban Health 83(1): 59–72.Google Scholar
Blankenship, K. M., West, B. S., Kershaw, T. S. and Biradavolu, M. R. (2008) ‘Power, Community Mobilization, and Condom Use Practices among Female Sex Workers in Andhra Pradesh, India,’ AIDS 22(Supplement 5): S109–16.Google Scholar
Blomley, N. K. (1994) ‘Activism and the Academy,’ Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12(4): 383–85.Google Scholar
Bokhour, B. G., Solomon, J. L., Knapp, H., Asch, S. M. and Gifford, A. L. (2009) ‘Barriers and Facilitators to Routine HIV Testing in VA Primary Care,’ Journal of General Internal Medicine 24(10): 1109–14.Google Scholar
Brown, A., Hunter, A., Kall, M. and Delpech, V. (2010) ‘BHIVA Testing Guidelines: The Continuing Need to Target People at Risk of Late HIV Diagnosis,’ HIV Medicine 11: 107–08.Google Scholar
Brown, L., Macintyre, K. and Trujillo, L. (2003) ‘Interventions to Reduce HIV/AIDS Stigma: What Have We Learned?,’ AIDS Education and Prevention 15(1): 49–69.Google Scholar
Burnett, J., Fessahaye, E. and Stopes, A. (2011) Detained and Denied: The Clinical Care of Immigration Detainees Living with HIV. London: Medical Justice.Google Scholar
Burris, S., Beletsky, J. A., Burleson, P., Case, P. and Lazzarini, Z. (2007) ‘Do Criminal Laws Influence HIV Risk Behavior? An Empirical Trial,’ Arizona State Law Journal 39: 467–517.Google Scholar
Burris, S. and Weait, M. (2011) ‘Criminalisation and the Moral Responsibility for Sexual Transmission of HIV’, Working Paper for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July 2011.Google Scholar
Calin, T., Green, J., Hetherton, J. and Brook, G. (2007) ‘Disclosure of HIV among Black African Men and Women Attending a London HIV Clinic,’ AIDS Care 19(3): 385–91.Google Scholar
Calzavara, L., Burchell, A. N., Major, C., Remis, R. S., Corey, P., Myers, T., Millson, P. and Wallace, E. (2002) ‘Increases in HIV Incidence among Men Who Have Sex with Men Undergoing Repeat Diagnostic HIV Testing in Ontario, Canada,’ AIDS 16(12): 1655–61.Google Scholar
Campbell, C. and Cornish, F. (2012) ‘How Can Community Health Programmes Build Enabling Environments for Transformative Communication? Experiences from India and South Africa,’ AIDS and Behavior 16(4): 847–57.Google Scholar
Caplinskiene, I., Caplinskas, S. and Griskevicius, A. (2003) ‘Narcotic Abuse and HIV Infection in Prisons,’ Medicina (Kaunas) 39(8): 797–803.Google Scholar
Cappon, P., Adrien, A., Hankins, C., Remis, R. and Roy, E. (1991) ‘HIV: The Debate over Isolation as a Measure of Personal Control,’ Canadian Journal of Public Health 82(6): 404–08.Google Scholar
Case, P., Meehan, T. and Jones, T. S. (1998) ‘Arrests and Incarceration of Injection Drug Users for Syringe Possession in Massachusetts: Implications for HIV Prevention,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Hum Retrovirol 18(Supplement 1): S71–75.Google Scholar
Castilla, J., Del romero, J., Hernando, V., Marincovich, B., Garcia, S. and Rodriguez, C. (2005) ‘Effectiveness of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Reducing Heterosexual Transmission of HIV,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 40(1): 96–101.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control (1981) ‘Kaposi's Sarcoma and Pneumocystis Pneumonia among Homosexual Men – New York City and California,’ Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 30(25): 305–08.Google Scholar
Chadborn, T. R., Baster, K., Delpech, V. C., Sabin, C. A., Sinka, K., Rice, B. D. and Evans, B. G. (2005) ‘No Time to Wait: How Many HIV-infected Homosexual Men Are Diagnosed Late and Consequently Die? (England and Wales, 1993–2002),’ AIDS 19(5): 513–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chadborn, T. R., Delpech, V. C., Sabin, C. A., Sinka, K. and Evans, B. G. (2006) ‘The Late Diagnosis and Consequent Short-term Mortality of HIV-infected Heterosexuals (England and Wales, 2000–2004),’ AIDS 20(18): 2371–79.Google Scholar
Chen, C. H., Ko, W. C., Lee, H. C., Hsu, K. L. and Ko, N. Y. (2008) ‘Risky Behaviors for HIV Infection among Male Incarcerated Injection Drug Users in Taiwan: A Case-control Study,’ AIDS Care 20(10): 1251–57.Google Scholar
Chiu, J. and Burris, S. (2011) ‘Punitive Drug Law and the Risk Environment for Injecting Drug Users: Understanding the Connections’, Working paper prepared for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=98>..>Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1969) American Power and the New Mandarins, New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Clark, H. J., Lindner, G., Armistead, L. and Austin, B. J. (2003) ‘Stigma, Disclosure, and Psychological Functioning among HIV-infected and Non-infected African-American Women,’ Women Health 38(4): 57–71.Google Scholar
Coenen, T., Lundgren, J., Lazarus, J. V. and Matic, S. (2008) ‘Optimal HIV Testing and Earlier Care: The Way Forward in Europe,’ HIV Medicine 9: 1–5.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (2004) ‘HIV/AIDS in India. Sonagachi Sex Workers Stymie HIV,’ Science 304(5670): 506.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. S., Chen, Y. Q., Mccauley, M., Gamble, T., Hosseinipour, M. C., Kumarasamy, N., Hakim, J. G., Kumwenda, J., Grinsztejn, B., Pilotto, J. H., Godbole, S. V., Mehendale, S., Chariyalertsak, S., Santos, B. R., Mayer, K. H., Hoffman, I. F., Eshleman, S. H., Piwowar-Manning, E., Wang, L., Makhema, J., Mills, L. A., De bruyn, G., Sanne, I., Eron, J., Gallant, J., Havlir, D., Swindells, S., Ribaudo, H., Elharrar, V., Burns, D., Taha, T. E., Nielsen-Saines, K., Celentano, D., Essex, M., Fleming, T. R. and Team, H. S. (2011) ‘Prevention of HIV-1 Infection with Early Antiretroviral Therapy,’ New England Journal of Medicine 365(6): 493–505.Google Scholar
Cook, T. E. and Colby, D. C. (1992) ‘The Mass-Mediated Epidemic: The Politics of AIDS on the Nightly Network News,’ in Fee, E. and Fox, D. M.(eds), AIDS: The Making of a Chronic Disease. Berkeley: University of California Press, 84–122.Google Scholar
Cornish, F. and Ghosh, R. (2007) ‘The Necessary Contradictions of ‘Community-led’ Health Promotion: A Case Study of HIV Prevention in an Indian Red Light District,’ Social Science and Medicine 64(2): 496–507.Google Scholar
Crimp, D. (1987) ‘How to Have Promiscuity in an Epidemic,’ October 43(October): 237–71.Google Scholar
Csete, J. (2005) ‘HIV/AIDS and Human Rights: We've Only Just Begun,’ HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review / Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network 10(1): 7–13.Google Scholar
Csete, J. and Elliott, R. (2006) ‘Scaling up HIV Testing: Human Rights and Hidden Costs,’ HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review / Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network 11(1): 5–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, A. L., Donaghy, H., Harman, A. N., Kim, M. and Turville, S. G. (2010) ‘Manipulation of Dendritic Cell Function by Viruses,’ Current Opinion in Microbiology 13(4): 524–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cu-Uvin, S., Caliendo, A. M., Reinert, S., Chang, A., Juliano-Remollino, C., Flanigan, T. P., Mayer, K. H. and Carpenter, C. C. (2000) ‘Effect of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy on Cervicovaginal HIV-1 RNA,’ AIDS 14(4): 415–21.Google Scholar
Daniels, M. G. (2008) ‘Late HIV Diagnosis,’ Sexually Transmitted Diseases 35(3): 323–24.Google Scholar
Danziger, R. (1996) ‘Compulsory Testing for HIV in Hungary,’ Social Science and Medicine 43(8): 1199–204.Google Scholar
Dechau, C. P. (1987) ‘Compulsory AIDS Testing in Bavaria,’ Nature 326(6108): 4.Google Scholar
Degenhardt, L., Mathers, B., Vickerman, P., Rhodes, T., Latkin, C. and Hickman, M. (2010) ‘Prevention of HIV Infection for People Who Inject Drugs: Why Individual, Structural, and Combination Approaches Are Needed,’ Lancet 376(9737): 285–301.Google Scholar
Delaney, M. (2006) ‘History of HAART – The True Story of How Effective Multi-drug Therapy Was Developed for Treatment of HIV Disease,’ Retrovirology 3(Supplement 1)(S6): 1.Google Scholar
Department of Health (2012) ‘HIV Treatment for Overseas Visitors: A Guide for the NHS’. Available at: <https://www.wp.dh.gov.uk/publications/files/2012/09/DH-Guidance-HIV-and-NHS-Charging-fORMATED.pdf>..>Google Scholar
De wit, J. B. and Adam, P. C. G. (2008) ‘To Test or Not to Test: Psychosocial Barriers to HIV Testing in High-income Countries,’ HIV Medicine 9(Supplement 2): 20–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, R. M., Ayala, G., Bein, E., Henne, J. and Marin, B. V. (2001) ‘The Impact of Homophobia, Poverty, and Racism on the Mental Health of Gay and Bisexual Latino Men: Findings from 3 US Cities,’ American Journal of Public Health 91(6): 927–32.Google Scholar
Dickerson, N. A. (1993) Civil Rights: HIV Testing, Contact Tracing, & Quarantine, Las Colinas, TX: Monument Press.Google Scholar
Dodds, C. (2005) ‘Messages of Responsibility: HIV/AIDS Prevention Materials in England,’ Health 9: 275–96.Google Scholar
Dodds, C., Bourne, A. and Weait, M. (2009) ‘Responses to Criminal Prosecutions for HIV Transmission among Gay Men with HIV in England and Wales,’ Reproductive Health Matters 17(34): 135–45.Google Scholar
Dodds, C., Weait, M., Bourne, A., Egede, S., Jessup, K. and Weatherburn, P. (2013) Keeping Confidence: HIV and the Criminal Law from Service Provider Perspectives. London: Sigma Research. Available at: <http://sigmaresearch.org.uk/projects/policy/project55/>.Google Scholar
Dolan, K., Kite, B., Black, E., Aceijas, C. and Stimson, G. V. (2007) ‘HIV in Prison in Low-income and Middle-income Countries,’ Lancet Infectious Diseases 7(1): 32–41.Google Scholar
Dowshen, N., Binns, H. J. and Garofalo, R. (2009) ‘Experiences of HIV-related Stigma among Young Men Who Have Sex with Men,’ AIDS Patient Care STDS 23(5): 371–76.Google Scholar
Dukers, N. H., Spaargaren, J., Geskus, R. B., Beijnen, J., Coutinho, R. A. and Fennema, H. S. (2002) ‘HIV Incidence on the Increase among Homosexual Men Attending an Amsterdam Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic: Using a Novel Approach for Detecting Recent Infections,’ AIDS 16(10): F19–24.Google Scholar
Ecdc (2009) Migrant Health: Access to HIV Prevention, Treatment and Care for Migrant Populations in EU/EEA Countries. Stockholm: ECDC.Google Scholar
Elliott, R. (2007) ‘Deadly Disregard: Government Refusal to Implement Evidence-based Measures to Prevent HIV and Hepatitis C Virus Infections in Prisons,’ Canadian Medical Association Journal 177(3): 262–64.Google Scholar
Epstein, D. (2000) ‘Sexualities and Education: Catch 28,’ Sexualities 3(4): 387–94.Google Scholar
Epstein, J. (1992) ‘AIDS, Stigma and Narratives of Containment,’ American Imago 49(3): 293–310.Google Scholar
Erausquin, J. T., Biradavolu, M., Reed, E., Burroway, R. and Blankenship, K. M. (2012) ‘Trends in Condom Use among Female Sex Workers in Andhra Pradesh, India: The Impact of a Community Mobilisation Intervention,’ Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 66(Supplement 2): ii49–54.Google Scholar
Fakoya, I., Reynolds, R., Caswell, G. and Shiripinda, I. (2008) ‘Barriers to HIV Testing for Migrant Black Africans in Western Europe,’ HIV Medicine 9(Supplement 2): 23–25.Google Scholar
Fang, C. T., Hsu, H. M., Twu, S. J., Chen, M. Y., Chang, Y. Y., Hwang, J. S., Wang, J. D. and Chuang, C. Y. (2004) ‘Decreased HIV Transmission After a Policy of Providing Free Access to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Taiwan,’ Journal of Infectious Diseases 190(5): 879–85.Google Scholar
Fay, H., Baral, S. D., Trapence, G., Motimedi, F., Umar, E., Iipinge, S., Dausab, F., Wirtz, A. and Beyrer, C. (2011) ‘Stigma, Health Care Access, and HIV Knowledge Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Malawi, Namibia, and Botswana,’ AIDS and Behavior 15(6): 1088–97.Google Scholar
Feinberg, J. (1970) The Expressive Function of Punishment. Doing and Deserving: Essays in the Theory of Responsibility. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Fisher, M. (2008) ‘Late Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Major Consequences and Missed Opportunities,’ Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 21(1): 1–3.Google Scholar
Forbes, A. (1996) ‘Mandatory Name-based Reporting: Impact and Alternatives,’ AIDS Policy Law (Bonus Report): 1–4.Google Scholar
Ford, N. L. and Quam, M. D. (1987) ‘AIDS Quarantine. The Legal and Practical Implications,’ Journal of Legal Medicine 8(3): 353–96.Google Scholar
Fortenberry, J. D., Mcfarlane, M., Bleakley, A., Bull, S., Fishbein, M., Grimley, D. M., Malotte, C. K. and Stoner, B. P. (2002) ‘Relationships of Stigma and Shame to Gonorrhea and HIV Screening,’ American Journal of Public Health 92(3): 378–81.Google Scholar
Freudenberg, N. (2011) ‘HIV in the Epicenter of the Epicenter: HIV and Drug Use Among Criminal Justice Populations in New York City, 1980–2007,’ Substance Use & Misuse 46(2/3): 159–70.Google Scholar
Frierson, R. L. and Lippmann, S. B. (1989) ‘What About Mandatory AIDS Testing?,’ Kentucky Medical Association Journal 87(2): 66–71.Google Scholar
Galarneau, C. (2010) ‘Blood Donation, Deferral, and Discrimination: FDA Donor Deferral Policy for Men Who Have Sex with Men,’ American Journal of Bioethics 10(2): 29–39.Google Scholar
Galletly, C. L. and Pinkerton, S. D. (2006) ‘Conflicting Messages: How Criminal HIV Disclosure Laws Undermine Public Health Efforts to Control the Spread of HIV,’ AIDS and Behavior 10(5): 451–61.Google Scholar
Gardezi, F., Calzavara, L., Husbands, W., Tharao, W., Lawson, E., Myers, T., Pancham, A., George, C., Remis, R., Willms, D., Mcgee, F. and Adebajo, S. (2008) ‘Experiences of and Responses to HIV Among African and Caribbean Communities in Toronto, Canada,’ AIDS Care 20(6): 718–25.Google Scholar
Gatsi, J. (2010) ‘Redressing and Halting Forced / Coerced Sterilization of Women and Girls Living with HIV and AIDS in Namibia’, paper presented at the XVIII International AIDS Conference. Vienna.Google Scholar
Gearty, C. and Mantouvalou, V. (2010) Debating Social Rights. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Genberg, B. L., Hlavka, Z., Konda, K. A., Maman, S., Chariyalertsak, S., Chingono, A., Mbwambo, J., Modiba, P., Van Rooyen, H. and Celentano, D. D. (2009) ‘A Comparison of HIV/AIDS-related Stigma in Four Countries: Negative Attitudes and Perceived Acts of Discrimination Towards People Living with HIV/AIDS,’ Social Science & Medicine 68(12): 2279–87.Google Scholar
Genberg, B. L., Kawichai, S., Chingono, A., Sendah, M., Chariyalertsak, S., Konda, K. A. and Celentano, D. D. (2008) ‘Assessing HIV/AIDS Stigma and Discrimination in Developing Countries,’ AIDS and Behavior 12(5): 772–80.Google Scholar
Ghose, T., Swendeman, D. T. and George, S. M. (2011) ‘The Role of Brothels in Reducing HIV Risk in Sonagachi, India,’ Qualitative Health Research 21(5): 587–600.Google Scholar
Ghose, T., Swendeman, D., George, S. and Chowdhury, D. (2008) ‘Mobilizing Collective Identity to Reduce HIV Risk Among Sex Workers in Sonagachi, India: The Boundaries, Consciousness, Negotiation Framework,’ Social Science & Medicine 67(2): 311–20.Google Scholar
Gilbart, V. L., Dougan, S., Sinka, K. and Evans, B. G. (2006) ‘Late Diagnosis of HIV Infection Among Individuals with Low, Unrecognised or Unacknowledged Risks in England, Wales and Northern Ireland,’ Aids Care–Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV 18(2): 133–39.Google Scholar
Girardi, E., Aloisi, M. S., Arici, C., Pezzotti, P., Serraino, D., Balzano, R., Vigevani, G., Alberici, F., Ursitti, M., D'Alessandro, M., D'Arminio Monforte, A. and Ippolito, G. (2004) ‘Delayed Presentation and Late Testing for HIV: Demographic and Behavioral Risk Factors in a Multicenter Study in Italy,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 36(4): 951–59.Google Scholar
Girardi, E., Sabin, C. A. and Monforte, A. D. (2007) ‘Late Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Epidemiological Features, Consequences and Strategies to Encourage Earlier Testing,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 46(Supplement 1): S3–8.Google Scholar
Global Commission on Hiv and the Law (2012) Risks, Rights and Health. New York: UNDP.Google Scholar
Goedert, J. J. (1987) ‘What is Safe Sex?,’ New England Journal of Medicine 316: 1339–42.Google Scholar
Gorry, C. (2008) ‘Cuba's HIV/AIDS Program: Controversy, Care and Cultural Shift,’ International Journal of Cuban Health and Medicine 10(4): 4–10.Google Scholar
Gostin, L. (1987) ‘Screening for AIDS: Efficacy, Cost, and Consequences,’ AIDS Public Policy Journal 2(4): 14–24.Google Scholar
Gostin, L. (1989) ‘The Politics of AIDS: Compulsory State Powers, Public Health, and Civil Liberties,’ Ohio State Law Journal 49(4): 1017–58.Google Scholar
Gostin, L. O. (2004) The AIDS Pandemic: Complacency, Injustice, and Unfulfilled Expectations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Grenfell, P., Nutland, W., Mcmanus, S., Datta, J., Soldan, K. and Wellings, K. (2011) ‘Views and Experiences of Men Who Have Sex with Men on the Ban on Blood Donation: A Cross Sectional Survey with Qualitative Interviews’, British Medical Journal, 343. Available at: <http://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d5604?view=long&pmid=21903692>.Google Scholar
Hall, H. I., Holtgrave, D. R. and Maulsby, C. (2012) ‘HIV Transmission Rates from Persons Living with HIV Who Are Aware and Unaware of Their Infection,’ AIDS 26(7): 893–96.Google Scholar
Hamers, F. F. and Phillips, A. N. (2008) ‘Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV-infected Populations in Europe,’ HIV Medicine 9(Supplement 2): 6–12.Google Scholar
Hansen, H. and Groce, N. (2003) ‘Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Quarantine in Cuba,’ Journal of the American Medical Association 290(21): 2875.Google Scholar
Heywood, T. A. (2009) ‘State Lawmakers Question Terrorism Charges for HIV-positive Man’, The Michigan Messenger (11 October). Available at: <http://michiganmessenger.com/29816/state-lawmakers-question-terrorism-charges-for-hiv-positive-man>..>Google Scholar
Heywood, T. A. (2010) ‘HIV-as-terrorism Charges Dismissed by Macomb County Judge’, The Michigan Messenger (6 February). Available at: <http://michiganmessenger.com/38431/hiv-as-terrorism-charges-dismissed-by-macomb-county-judge>..>Google Scholar
Hocking, J. S., Rodger, A. J., Rhodes, D. G. and Crofts, N. (2000) ‘Late Presentation of HIV Infection Associated with Prolonged Survival Following AIDS Diagnosis–Characteristics of Individuals,’ International Journal of STD & AIDS 11(8): 503–08.Google Scholar
Huebner, D. M., Davis, M. C., Nemeroff, C. J. and Aiken, L. S. (2002) ‘The Impact of Internalized Homophobia on HIV Preventive Interventions,’ Amercan Journal of Community Psychology 30(3): 327–48.Google Scholar
Icw (2009) The Forced and Coerced Sterilization of HIV Positive Women in Namibia. London: ICW.Google Scholar
Jana, S., Basu, I., Rotheram-Borus, M. J. and Newman, P. A. (2004) ‘The Sonagachi Project: A Sustainable Community Intervention Program,’ AIDS Education and Prevention 16(5): 405–14.Google Scholar
Jana, S. and Singh, S. (1995) ‘Beyond Medical Model of STD Intervention–lessons from Sonagachi,’ Indian Journal of Public Health 39(3): 125–31.Google Scholar
Jürgens, R., Ball, A. and Verster, A. (2009) ‘Interventions to Reduce HIV Transmission Related to Injecting Drug Use in Prison,’ Lancet Infectious Diseases 9: 57–66.Google Scholar
Jürgens, R., Nowak, M. and Day, M. (2011) ‘HIV and Incarceration: Prisons and Detention’, Journal of the International AIDS Society 14: 26. Available at: <http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1758-2652-14-26.pdf>.Google Scholar
Kanyamurwa, J. M. and Ampek, G. T. (2007) ‘Gender Differentiation in Community Responses to AIDS in Rural Uganda,’ AIDS Care 19(Supplement 1): S64–72.Google Scholar
Katz, M. H., Schwarcz, S. K., Kellogg, T. A., Klausner, J. D., Dilley, J. W., Gibson, S. and Mcfarland, W. (2002) ‘Impact of Highly Active Antiretroviral Treatment on HIV Seroincidence Among Men Who Have Sex with Men: San Francisco,’ American Journal of Public Health 92(3): 388–94.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. A., Kalichman, S. C., Kauth, M. R., Kilgore, H. G., Hood, H. V., Campos, P. E., Rao, S. M., Brasfield, T. L. and St Lawrence, J. S. (1991a) ‘Situational Factors Associated with AIDS Risk Behavior Lapses and Coping Strategies Used by Gay Men Who Successfully Avoid Lapses,’ American Journal of Public Health 81(10): 1335–38.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. A. and Murphy, D. A. (1991) ‘Some Lessons Learned about Risk Reduction after Ten Years of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic,’ AIDS Care 3(3): 251–57.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. A., St Lawrence, J. S. and Brasfield, T. L. (1991b) ‘Predictors of Vulnerability to AIDS Risk Behavior Relapse,’ Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59(1): 163–66.Google Scholar
Kerrigan, D., Telles, P., Torres, H., Overs, C. and Castle, C. (2008) ‘Community Development and HIV/STI-related Vulnerability Among Female Sex Workers in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,’ Health Education Research 23(1): 137–45.Google Scholar
Kim, J., Pronyk, P., Barnett, T. and Watts, C. (2008) ‘Exploring the Role of Economic Empowerment in HIV Prevention,’ AIDS 22(Supplement 4): S57–71.Google Scholar
Lai, D., Hwang, L. Y. and Beasley, R. P. (2012) ‘Compulsory HIV Testing for Exit from and Entry to China: Effectiveness, Cost, and Stigma – a Policy Update,’ Journal of Public Health Policy 33(2): 269–72.Google Scholar
Lazarus, J. V., Curth, N., Weait, M. and Matic, S. (2010) ‘HIV-related Restrictions on Entry, Residence and Stay in the WHO European Region: A Survey. Journal of the International AIDS Society 13: 2. Available at: <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2823611/pdf/1758-2652-13-2.pdf>.Google Scholar
Lazzarini, Z., Bray, S. and Burris, S. (2002) ‘Evaluating the Impact of Criminal Laws on HIV Risk Behavior,’ Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30(2): 239–53.Google Scholar
Mahon, C. (2009) ‘Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and the Right to Health,’ in Clapham, A., Robinson, M., Mahon, C., and Jerbi, S. (eds), Realizing the Right to Health, Swiss Human Rights Book, Vol. III. Zurich: Rüffer & Rub.Google Scholar
Maman, S., Abler, L., Parker, L., Lane, T., Chirowodza, A., Ntogwisangu, J., Srirak, N., Modiba, P., Murima, O. and Fritz, K. (2009) ‘A Comparison of HIV Stigma and Discrimination in Five International Sites: The Influence of Care and Treatment Resources in High Prevalence Settings,’ Social Science and Medicine 68(12): 2271–78.Google Scholar
Mann, J. M. (1995) ‘Human Rights and the New Public Health,’ Health and Human Rights 1(3): 229–33.Google Scholar
Mann, J. M. (1996) ‘Health and Human Rights: Broadening the Agenda for Health Professionals,’ Health and Human Rights 2(1): 1–5.Google Scholar
Mann, J. M. (1998) ‘AIDS and Human Rights: Where Do We Go from Here?,’ Health and Human Rights 3(1): 143–49.Google Scholar
Mann, J. M., Gostin, L., Gruskin, S., Brennan, T., Lazzarini, Z. and Fineberg, H. V. (1994) ‘Health and Human Rights,’ Health and Human Rights 1(1): 6–23.Google Scholar
Marks, G., Crepaz, N. and Janssen, R. S. (2006) ‘Estimating Sexual Transmission of HIV from Persons Aware and Unaware That They Are Infected with the Virus in the USA,’ AIDS 20(10): 1447–50.Google Scholar
Marks, G., Crepaz, N., Senterfitt, J. W. and Janssen, R. S. (2005) ‘Meta-analysis of High-risk Sexual Behavior in Persons Aware and Unaware They Are Infected with HIV in the United States: Implications for HIV Prevention Programs,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 39(4): 446–53.Google Scholar
Martucci, J. (2010) ‘Negotiating Exclusion: MSM, Identity, and Blood Policy in the Age of AIDS’. Social Studies of Science 40(2): 215–41.Google Scholar
Mathers, B. M., Degenhardt, L., Phillips, B., Wiessing, L., Hickman, M., Strathdee, S. A., Wodak, A., Panda, S., Tyndall, M., Toufik, A., Mattick, R. P. (Reference Group to the UN on HIV and Injecting Drug Use) (2008) ‘Global Epidemiology of Injecting Drug Use and HIV Among People Who Inject Drugs: A Systematic Review,’ Lancet 372(9651): 1733–45.Google Scholar
Maxey, I. (1999) ‘Beyond Boundaries? Activism, Academia, Reflexivity and Research,’ Area 31(3): 199–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, J. P. and Williams, E. L. (2002) ‘Acceptability of Condom Availability in a U.S. Jail,’ AIDS Education and Prevention 14(5 Supplement B): 85–91.Google Scholar
May, M. T., Gompels, M., Delpech, V., Porter, K., Post, F., Johnson, M., Dunn, D., Palfreeman, A., Gilson, R., Gazzard, B., Hill, T., Walsh, J., Fisher, M., Orkin, C., Ainsworth, J., Bansi, L., Phillips, A., Leen, C., Nelson, M., Anderson, J. and Sabin, C. (2011) ‘Impact of Late Diagnosis and Treatment on Life Expectancy in People with HIV-1: UK Collaborative HIV Cohort (UK CHIC) Study’, British Medical Journal 343: d6016. Available at: <http://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d6016>.Google Scholar
May, M. T. and Ingle, S. M. (2011) ‘Life Expectancy of HIV-positive Adults: A Review,’ Sex Health 8(4): 526–33.Google Scholar
May, M. T., Sterne, J. A., Sabin, C., Costagliola, D., Justice, A. C., Thiebaut, R., Gill, J., Phillips, A., Reiss, P., Hogg, R., Ledergerber, B., D'Arminio Monforte, A., Schmeisser, N., Staszewski, S. and Egger, M. (2007) ‘Prognosis of HIV-1-infected Patients up to 5 Years after Initiation of HAART: Collaborative Analysis of Prospective Studies,’ AIDS 21(9): 1185–97.Google Scholar
Mccall, M. L. (1993) ‘AIDS Quarantine Law in the International Community: Health and Safety Measures or Human Rights Violations?’ Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 15(4): 1001–28.Google Scholar
Mclemore, M. (2008) ‘Access to Condoms in U.S. Prisons,’ HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review 13(1): 20–24.Google Scholar
Meiberg, A. E., Bos, A. E., Onya, H. E. and Schaalma, H. P. (2008) ‘Fear of Stigmatization as Barrier to Voluntary HIV Counselling and Testing in South Africa,’ East African Journal of Public Health 5(2): 49–54.Google Scholar
Michaud, P. A., Suris, J. C., Thomas, L. R., Kahlert, C., Rudin, C. and Cheseaux, J. J. (2009) ‘To Say or Not to Say: A Qualitative Study on the Disclosure of Their Condition by Human Immunodeficiency Virus-positive Adolescents,’ Journal of Adolescent Health 44(4): 356–62.Google Scholar
Mohr, R. D. (1987) ‘AIDS, Gays, and State Coercion,’ Bioethics 1(1): 35–50.Google Scholar
Montgomery, J. P., Mokotoff, E. D., Gentry, A. C. and Blair, J. M. (2003) ‘The Extent of Bisexual Behaviour in HIV-infected Men and Implications for Transmission to Their Female Sex Partners,’ AIDS Care 15(6): 829–37.Google Scholar
Mowbray, A. (2010) ‘A Study of the Principle of Fair Balance in the Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights,’ Human Rights Law Review 10(2): 289–317.Google Scholar
Munger, F. (2001) ‘Inquiry and Activism in Law and Society,’ Law and Society Review 35(1): 7–20.Google Scholar
Musto, D. F. (1986) ‘Quarantine and the Problem of AIDS,’ Milbank Quarterly 64(1): 97–117.Google Scholar
Mwamburi, D. M., Dladla, N., Qwana, E. and Lurie, M. N. (2005) ‘Factors Associated with Wanting to Know HIV Results in South Africa,’ AIDS Patient Care STDS 19(8): 518–25.Google Scholar
Mykhalovskiy, E. (2011) ‘The Problem of “Significant Risk”: Exploring the Public Health Impact of Criminalizing HIV Non-disclosure,’ Social Science & Medicine 73(5): 668–75.Google Scholar
Nakagawa, F., Lodwick, R. K., Smith, C. J., Smith, R., Cambiano, V., Lundgren, J. D., Delpech, V. and Phillips, A. N. (2012) ‘Projected Life Expectancy of People with HIV According to Timing of Diagnosis,’ AIDS 26(3): 335–43.Google Scholar
Nanin, J., Osubu, T., Walker, J., Powell, B., Powell, D. and Parsons, J. (2009) ‘”HIV Is Still Real”: Perceptions of HIV Testing and HIV Prevention Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men in New York City’. American Journal of Mens Health 3(2): 150–64.Google Scholar
Napwa (2009) The Criminalisation of HIV in Australia: Legality, Morality and Reality, ed. Cameron, S. and Rule, J.. Newtown, NSW: NAPWA.Google Scholar
Nou (2012) Om kjærlighet og kjøletårn: Strafferettslige spørsmål ved alvorlige smittsomme sykdommer. Oslo: NOU. Available at: <http://www.regjeringen.no/pages/38086281/PDFS/NOU201220120017000DDDPDFS.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Novick, A. (1985) ‘Quarantine and AIDS,’ Connecticut Medicine 49(2): 81–83.Google Scholar
Ontario Working Group on Criminal Law and Hiv Exposure (2011) Consultation on Prosecutorial Guidelines for Ontario Cases Involving Non-disclosure of Sexually Transmitted Infections: Community Report and Recommendations to the Attorney General of Ontario. Available at: <http://ontarioaidsnetwork.on.ca/clhe/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/CHLE-guidelines-report.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Open Society Foundations (2012) Criminalizing Condoms: How Policing Practices Put Sex Workers and HIV Services at Risk in Kenya, Namibia, Russia, South Africa, the United States, and Zimbabwe. Available at: <http://www.soros.org/sites/default/files/criminalizing-condoms-20120717.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Oransky, M., Fisher, C. B., Mahadevan, M. and Singer, M. (2009) ‘Barriers and Opportunities for Recruitment for Nonintervention Studies on HIV Risk: Perspectives of Street Drug Users,’ Substance Use & Misuse 44(11): 1642–59.Google Scholar
Palmer, S. (2006) ‘A Wrong Turning: Article 3 ECHR and Proportionality,’ Cambridge Law Journal 65: 438–51.Google Scholar
Paparini, S., Doyal, L. and Anderson, J. (2008) ‘“I Count Myself as Being in a Different World”: African Gay and Bisexual Men Living with HIV in London. An Exploratory Study,’ AIDS Care 20(5): 601–05.Google Scholar
Pearshouse, R. (2007) ‘Legislation Contagion: The Spread of New HIV Laws in Western Africa,’ HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review 12(2/3)(1): 5–11.Google Scholar
Pebody, R. (2012) HIV treatment to Be Free for Undocumented Migrants and Non-UK Citizens. NAM aidsmap (28 February). Available at: <http://www.aidsmap.com/HIV-treatment-to-be-free-for-undocumented-migrants-and-non-UK-citizens/page/2271302/>..>Google Scholar
Persson, A. and Newman, C. (2008) ‘Making Monsters: Heterosexuality, Crime and Race in Recent Western Media Coverage of HIV,’ Sociology of Health and Illness 30(4): 632–46.Google Scholar
Pillay, D., Rambaut, A., Geretti, A. M. and Brown, A. J. L. (2007) ‘HIV Phylogenetics – Criminal Convictions Relying Solely on This to Establish Transmission Are Unsafe,’ British Medical Journal 335(7618): 460–61.Google Scholar
Platt, L., Bobrova, N., Rhodes, T., Uusküla, A., Parry, J. V., Rüütel, K., Talu, A., Abel, K., Rajaleid, K. and Judd, A. (2006) ‘High HIV Prevalence Among Injecting Drug Users in Estonia: Implications for Understanding the Risk Environment,’ AIDS 20(16): 2120–23.Google Scholar
Platt, L., Hickman, M., Rhodes, T., Mikhailova, L., Karavashkin, V., Vlasov, A., Tilling, K., Hope, V., Khutorksoy, M. and Renton, A. (2004) ‘The Prevalence of Injecting Drug Use in a Russian City: Implications for Harm Reduction and Coverage,’ Addiction 99(11): 1430–38.Google Scholar
Pronyk, P. M., Kim, J. C., Abramsky, T., Phetla, G., Hargreaves, J. R., Morison, L. A., Watts, C., Busza, J. and Porter, J. D. (2008) ‘A Combined Microfinance and Training Intervention Can Reduce HIV Risk Behaviour in Young Female Participants,’ AIDS 22(13): 1659–65.Google Scholar
Quevedo-Gómez, M. C., Krumeich, A., Abadía-Barrero, C. E., Pastrana-Salcedo, E. M. and Van Den Borne, H. (2011) ‘Structural Actions Toward HIV/AIDS Prevention in Cartagena, Colombia: A Qualitative Study,’ Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública 30(1): 65–73.Google Scholar
Reid, S. E., Topp, S. M., Turnbull, E. R., Hatwiinda, S., Harris, J. B., Maggard, K. R., Roberts, S. T., Krüüner, A., Morse, J. C., Kapata, N., Chisela, C. and Henostroza, G. (2012) ‘Tuberculosis and HIV Control in Sub-Saharan African Prisons: “Thinking Outside the Prison Cell”,’ Journal of Infectious Diseases 205(Supplement 2): S265–73.Google Scholar
Rhodes, T., Mikhailova, L., Sarang, A., Lowndes, C. M., Rylkov, A., Khutorskoy, M. and Renton, A. (2003) ‘Situational Factors Influencing Drug Injecting, Risk Reduction and Syringe Exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: A Qualitative Study of Micro Risk Environment,’ Social Science and Medicine 57(1): 39–54.Google Scholar
Rhodes, T., Platt, L., Maximova, S., Koshkina, E., Latishevskaya, N., Hickman, M., Renton, A., Bobrova, N., Mcdonald, T. and Parry, J. V. (2006a) ‘Prevalence of HIV, Hepatitis C and Syphilis Among Injecting Drug Users in Russia: A Multi-city Study,’ Addiction 101(2): 252–66.Google Scholar
Rhodes, T., Platt, L., Sarang, A., Vlasov, A., Mikhailova, L. and Monaghan, G. (2006b) ‘Street Policing, Injecting Drug Use and Harm Reduction in a Russian City: A Qualitative Study of Police Perspectives,’ Journal of Urban Health 83(5): 911–25.Google Scholar
Rhodes, T. and Sarang, A. (2012) ‘Drug Treatment and the Conditionality of HIV Treatment Access: A Qualitative Study in a Russian City,’ Addiction 107(10): 1827–36.Google Scholar
Rhodes, T., Singer, M., Bourgois, P., Friedman, S. R. and Strathdee, S. A. (2005) ‘The Social Structural Production of HIV Risk Among Injecting Drug Users,’ Social Science and Medicine 61(5): 1026–44.Google Scholar
Roehr, B. (2010) ‘How Homophobia Is Fuelling Africa's HIV Epidemic’. British Medical Journal 340: c2245. Available at: <http://www.bmj.com/content/340/bmj.c2245>.Google Scholar
Ross, M. W. and Rosser, B. R. (1996) ‘Measurement and Correlates of Internalized Homophobia: A Factor Analytic Study,’ Journal of Clinical Psychology 52(1): 15–21.Google Scholar
Sabin, C. A., Smith, C. J., Gumley, H., Murphy, G., Lampe, F. C., Phillips, A. N., Prinz, B., Youle, M. and Johnson, M. A. (2004) ‘Late Presenters in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy: Uptake of and Responses to Antiretroviral Therapy,’ AIDS 18(16): 2145–51.Google Scholar
Sarang, A., Rhodes, T. and Platt, L. (2008) ‘Access to Syringes in Three Russian Cities: Implications for Syringe Distribution and Coverage,’ International Journal of Drug Policy 19(Supplement 1): S25–36.Google Scholar
Shah, S. (2011) Trafficking and the Conflation with Sex Work: Implications for HIV Prevention and Control. Working Paper for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=100>..>Google Scholar
Shannon, K. and Csete, J. (2010) ‘Violence, Condom Negotiation, and HIV/STI Risk Among Sex Workers,’ Journal of the American Medical Association 304(5): 573–74.Google Scholar
Shevory, T. (2004) Notorious H.I.V.: The Media Spectacle of Nushawn Williams. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Small, W., Rhodes, T., Wood, E. and Kerr, T. (2007) ‘Public Injection Settings in Vancouver: Physical Environment, Social Context and Risk,’ International Journal of Drug Policy 18(1): 27–36.Google Scholar
Smith, A., Fiddler, J., Walby, K. and Hier, S. (2011) ‘Blood Donation and Institutional Trust: Risk, Policy Rhetoric, and the Men Who Have Sex with Men Lifetime Deferral Policy in Canada,’ Canadian Review of Sociology 48(4): 369–89.Google Scholar
Smith, D. (1992) ‘Sociology from Women's Experience: A Reaffirmation,’ Sociological Theory 10(1): 88–98.Google Scholar
Sontag, S. (1989) AIDS and its Metaphors. New York: Farar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Stokes, J. P. and Peterson, J. L. (1998) ‘Homophobia, Self-esteem, and Risk for HIV Among African American Men Who Have Sex with Men,’ AIDS Education and Prevention 10(3): 278–92.Google Scholar
Strathdee, S. A., Hallett, T. B., Bobrova, N., Rhodes, T., Booth, R., Abdool, R. and Hankins, C. A. (2010) ‘HIV and Risk Environment for Injecting Drug Users: The Past, Present, and Future,’ Lancet 376(9737): 268–84.Google Scholar
Strathdee, S. A., Lozada, R., Pollini, R. A., Brouwer, K. C., Mantsios, A., Abramovitz, D. A., Rhodes, T., Latkin, C. A., Loza, O., Alvelais, J., Magis-Rodriguez, C. and Patterson, T. L. (2008) ‘Individual, Social, and Environmental Influences Associated with HIV Infection Among Injection Drug Users in Tijuana, Mexico,’ Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 47(3): 369–76.Google Scholar
Sukthankar, A. (2011) Sex Work, HIV and the Law, Working paper prepared for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group of the Global Commission on HIV and Law, 7–9 July 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=99>..>Google Scholar
Sullivan, K. M. and Field, M. A. (1988) ‘AIDS and the Coercive Power of the State,’ Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 23(1): 139–97.Google Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (1996) ‘On the Expressive Function of Law,’ University of Pennsylvania Law Review 4(5): 2021–53.Google Scholar
Swendeman, D., Basu, I., Das, S., Jana, S. and Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2009) ‘Empowering Sex Workers in India to Reduce Vulnerability to HIV and Sexually Transmitted Diseases,’ Social Science and Medicine 69(8): 1157–66.Google Scholar
Symington, A. (2011) ‘Blood Donor Ban Upheld,’ HIV/AIDS Policy Law Review 15(2): 38–39.Google Scholar
Tauber, A. I. (1994) The Immune Self: Theory or Metaphor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tauber, A. I. and Chernyak, L. (1991) Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology: From Metaphor to Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Terrence Higgins Trust (2009) Policing Transmission: A Review of Police Handling of Criminal Investigations Relating to Transmission of HIV in England and Wales, 2005–2008. London: Terrence Higgins Trust.Google Scholar
Turnbull, P. J., Dolan, K. A. and Stimson, G. V. (1993) ‘HIV Testing, and the Care and Treatment of HIV Positive People in English Prisons,’ AIDS Care 5(2): 199–206.Google Scholar
Unaids (1998/2006) International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids (2005) HIV-Related Stigma, Discrimination and Human Rights Violations. UNAIDS Best Practice Collection. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids (2008) The Criminalization of HIV Transmission: Policy Brief. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids (2010) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids (2011) Expert Meeting on the Scientific, Medical, Legal and Human Rights Aspects of the Criminalisation of HIV Non-Disclosure, Exposure and Transmission. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids (2013) Guidance Note: Ending Overly Broad Criminalisation of HIV Non-disclosure, Exposure and Transmission: Critical Scientific, Medical and Legal Considerations. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Unaids/Ipu (1999) Handbook for Legislators on HIV/AIDS, Law and Human Rights. Geneva: UNAIDS.Google Scholar
Underwood, C., Skinner, J., Osman, N. and Schwandt, H. (2011) ‘Structural Determinants of Adolescent Girls’ Vulnerability to HIV: Views from Community Members in Botswana, Malawi, and Mozambique,’ Social Science and Medicine 73(2): 343–50.Google Scholar
Ungass (2001) Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS (A/RES/S-26/2). New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Valdiserri, R. O. (2007) ‘Late HIV Diagnosis: Bad Medicine and Worse Public Health,’ PLOS Medicine 4(6): 975–76.Google Scholar
Vale de Andrade, P. and Caparinha, L. (2010) ‘Drug Decriminalisation in Portugal’, British Medical Journal: 341: c4554. Available at: <http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c4554>.Google Scholar
Valle, M. and Levy, J. (2009) ‘Weighing the Consequences: Self-disclosure of HIV-positive Status Among African American Injection Drug Users,’ Health Education & Behavior 36(1): 155–66.Google Scholar
Waites, M. (2000) ‘Homosexuality and the New Right: The Legacy of the 1980s for New Delineations of Homophobia’, Sociological Research Online 5(1). Available at: <http://www.socresonline.org.uk/5/1/waites.html>..>Google Scholar
Watchirs, H. (2002) ‘A Human Rights Approach to HIV/AIDS: Transforming International Obligations into National Laws,’ Australian Yearbook of International Law 22: 77–112.Google Scholar
Watchirs, H. (2003) ‘AIDS Audit – HIV and Human Rights: An Australian Pilot,’ Law and Policy 25(3): 245–68.Google Scholar
Watney, S. (1987) Policing Desire. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Watney, S. (1988) ‘Missionary Positions: AIDS, “Africa”, and Race,’ Differences 1(1): 83–101.Google Scholar
Watney, S. (1999) ‘Safer Sex as Community Practice,’ in Parker, Richard and Aggleton, Peter (eds), Culture, Society and Sexuality: A Reader. London: UCL Press, 19–23.Google Scholar
Weait, M. (2005) ‘Knowledge, Autonomy and Consent: R. v Konzani,’ Criminal Law Review 763–72.Google Scholar
Weait, M. (2007) Intimacy and Responsibility: The Criminalisation of HIV Transmission. Abingdon/New York: Routledge-Cavendish.Google Scholar
Weait, M. (2011) The Criminalisation of HIV Exposure and Transmission: A Global Review', Working Paper prepared for the Third Meeting of the Technical Advisory Group, Global Commission on HIV and the Law, 7–9 July, 2011. Available at: <http://www.hivlawcommission.org/index.php/working-papers?task=document.viewdoc&id=90>..' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Weait,+M.+(2011)+The+Criminalisation+of+HIV+Exposure+and+Transmission:+A+Global+Review',+Working+Paper+prepared+for+the+Third+Meeting+of+the+Technical+Advisory+Group,+Global+Commission+on+HIV+and+the+Law,+7–9+July,+2011.+Available+at:+.>Google Scholar
Weatherburn, P., Keogh, P., Dodds, C., Hickson, F. and Henderson, L. (2007) The Growing Challenge: A Strategic Review of HIV Social Care, Support and Information Services across the UK. London: Sigma Research.Google Scholar
Weiss, R. A. (1993) ‘How Does HIV Cause AIDS?,’ Science 260(5112): 1273–79.Google Scholar
West, C. (1991) ‘Theory, Pragmatism and Politics,’ in Arac, J. and Johnson, B.(eds), Consequences of Theory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 000–000.Google Scholar
Wisaksana, R., Alisjahbana, B., Van Crevel, R., Kesumah, N., Sudjana, P. and Sumantri, R. (2009) ‘Challenges in Delivering HIV-care in Indonesia: Experience from a Referral Hospital,’ Acta Medica Indonesiana 41(Supplement 1): 45–51.Google Scholar
Yang, H., Li, X., Stanton, B., Fang, X., Lin, D. and Naar-King, S. (2006) ‘HIV-related Knowledge, Stigma, and Willingness to Disclose: A Mediation Analysis,’ AIDS Care 18(7): 717–24.Google Scholar
Yirrell, D. L., Robertson, P., Goldberg, D. J., Mcmenamin, J., Cameron, S. and Leigh Brown, A. J. (1997) ‘Molecular Investigation into Outbreak of HIV in a Scottish Prison,’ British Medical Journal 314(7092): 1446–50.Google Scholar