Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T01:58:13.427Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Minimising medical litigation: a review of key tort and legal reforms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 July 2009

Harold Tan
Harold Tan*
Affiliation:
Deputy Director, Health Regulation Division, Ministry of Health, Singapore
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The traditional tort system in medical malpractice is increasingly perceived as being incapable of addressing the mismatch between claims and negligent injuries. Tort reforms have been introduced in various developed countries in an attempt to bring about greater fairness and economic sustainability in the compensation of medical injuries and to reduce the overall rate of medical litigation. This paper reviews the key tort reforms that have been used in various countries, notably the US and the UK, and discusses the arguments that had been put forth by advocates and opponents of such reforms. The impact of these tort reforms, where studied and available, is also reviewed and discussed in the paper.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Law in Context , Volume 5 , Issue 2 , June 2009 , pp. 179 - 233
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aas, M. I. H. (1991) ‘Malpractice’, Quality Assurance in Health Care, 3(1): 21–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abraham, K. S., Rabin, R. L. and Weiler, P. C. (1993) ‘Enterprise Responsibility for Personal Injury: Further Reflections’, San Diego Law Review, 333–64.Google Scholar
ACC Background Paper (2003) Comparison of International Schemes that Compensate for Medical Injury. Available at http://www.acc.co.nz/for-providers/previous-news/WCM2_020595?ssSourceNodeId=3911&ssSourceSiteId=1494.Google Scholar
Adelman, S. H. and Westerlund, L. (2004) ‘The Swedish Patient Compensation System: A Viable Alternative to the US Tort System?’, Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, 89(1): 25–30. Available at http://www.facs.org/fellows_info/bulletin/2004/adelman0104.pdf.Google Scholar
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (nd). Medical Errors: The Scope of the Problem. Fact sheet, Publication No. AHRQ 00-P037. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/errback.htm.Google Scholar
Ahearn, M. (2001) Medical Malpractice Arbitration. Available at http://www.adrlawinfo.com/medmal.html.Google Scholar
Aiken, J. R.(1974) ‘New Netherlands Arbitration in the 17th Century’, Arbitration Journal, 29:145–60.Google Scholar
American Academy of Family Physicians (nd). Liability: Limits on Attorney Fees. Available at http://www.aafp.org/online/etc/medialib/aafp_org/documents/policy/state/liability-fees.Par.0001.File.tmp/stateadvocacy_Liability_Attorney%20Fees.pdf.Google Scholar
American College of Surgeons (2003) Defining the Terms: Medical Liability Reform Provisions. Available at http://www.facs.org/ahp/defineterms.html.Google Scholar
American Medical News (2007) Pre-court Hearing. Available at http://www.amednews.com.Google Scholar
American Tort Reform Association (2007) Alternative Dispute Resolution. Arbitration. Available at http://www.atra.org.Google Scholar
American Tort Reform Association (2007) Collateral Source Rule Reform. Available at http://www.atra.org/issues/index.php?issue=7344&print=1.Google Scholar
American Tort Reform Association (2007) Tort Reform Record. Available at http://www.atra.org/files.cgi/8140_Record07-07_3.pdf.Google Scholar
At, C. and Chappe, N. (2005) The Lawyer as a Portfolio Manager: How Does the Fee System Influence on the Lawyer’s Decision of Handling Legal Claim? The Berkeley Electronic Press, 674. Available at http://law.bepress.com/expresso/eps/674.Google Scholar
Bailey, R. (2003) Ambulance Chasers II. Reasononline. Available at http://www.reason.com/news/printer/33674.html.Google Scholar
Bar-gill, O. (2005) ‘The Evolution and Persistence of Optimism in Litigation’, Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 22(2): 490–507.Google Scholar
BBC News (2004) Pursuing the ‘Ambulance Chasers’. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4000323.stm.Google Scholar
Becker, C. (2006) ‘Medical Malpractice Liability Reform – No Easy Task’, Association of Perioperative Registered Nurses Journal 83(2): 489–95.Google Scholar
Beckman, H. B., Markakis, K. M., Suchman, A. L. and Frankel, R. M. (1994) ‘The Doctor-Patient Relationship and Malpractice. Lessons from Plaintiff Depositions’, Archives of Internal Medicine 154(12): 1365–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beckner, C. F. and Katz, A. (1995) ‘The Incentive Effects of Litigation Fee Shifting When Legal Standards are Uncertain’, International Review of Law and Economics 15(2): 205–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, B. L. (1995) ‘An Exploration of the Impact of Modern Arbitration Statutes on the Development of Arbitration in the United States’, Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 11(2): 479–501.Google Scholar
Bergen, R. P. (1972) ‘Mediation of Liability Claims’, Journal of the American Medical Association 222(2): 241–42.Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. E. (1996) ‘Procedural Tort Reform. Lessons from Other Nations’, Regulation 19(1). Available at www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/reg19n1e.html.Google Scholar
Bismark, M. M., Brennan, T. A., Davis, P. B. and Studdert, D. M. (2006) ‘Claiming Behaviour in a No-fault System of Medical Injury: A Descriptive Analysis of Claimants and Non-claimants’, Medical Journal of Australia 185: 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bismark, M. and Paterson, R. (2006) ‘No-fault Compensation in New Zealand: Harmonizing Injury Compensation, Provider Accountability, and Patient Safety’, Health Affairs 25(1): 278–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackmon, G. and Zeckhauser, R. (1990) The Effect of State Tort Reform Legislation on Liability Insurance Losses and Premiums. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Born, P. H. and Viscusi, W. K. (1998) The Distribution of the Insurance Market Effects of Tort Liability Reforms. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 55–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Born, P. H., Viscusi, W. K. and Baker, T. (2006) The Effects of Tort Reform on Medical Malpractice Insurers’ Ultimate Losses. University of Connecticut School of Law Articles and Working Papers 61. Available at http://lsr.nellco.org/uconn/ucwps/papers/61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bovbjerg, R. R. (2007) ‘Commentary: Malpractice Reform in Policy Perspective’, The Milbank Quarterly 85(2): 297–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bovbjerg, R. R., Sloan, F. A. and Blumstein, J. (1989) ‘Valuing Life and Limb: Scheduling “Pain and Suffering”’, Northwestern University Law Review 83(4): 908–76.Google Scholar
Bovbjerg, R. R., Sloan, F. A. and Rankin, P. J. (1997) ‘Administrative Performance of “No-fault” Compensation for Medical Injury’, Law and Contemporary Problems 60(2): 71–115.Google Scholar
Brennan, T. A., Sox, C. M. and Burstin, H. R. (1996) ‘Relation Between Negligent Adverse Events and the Outcomes of Medical Malpractice Litigation’, New England Journal of Medicine 335(26): 1963–67.Google Scholar
Brine, A. (2003) ‘Medical Malpractice and the Goals of Tort Law’, Health Law Journal 11: 241–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, C. (1985) ‘Deterrence in Tort and No Fault: The New Zealand Experience’, California Law Review 73(3): 976–1002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, M. J. and Puelz, R. (1999) ‘The Effect of Legal Rules on the Value of Economic and Non-economic Damages and the Decision to File’, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 18(2): 189–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, P. (2004) ‘A Brief Introduction to Medical Misadventure’, Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 35(4): 36. Available at http://www.austlii.edu.au/nz/journals/VUWLRev/2004/36.html.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. K., Klein, L. A. and Lesser, S. B. (2004) Report on Contingent Fees in Medical Malpractice Litigation. American Bar Association. Available at http://www.abanet.org/tips/contingent/MedMalReport092004DCW2.pdf.Google Scholar
CBC News (2002) Quebec Considers No-fault Insurance for Medical Mistakes. Available at http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2002/01/22/nofaulthealth_020122.html.Google Scholar
Cecil, J. S., Hans, V. P. and Wiggins, E. C. (1991) ‘Citizen Comprehension of Difficult Issues: Lessons from Civil Jury Trials’, American University Law Review 40(2): 727–74.Google Scholar
Chejfec, C. and Haberkorn, G. (1996) ‘Tort Reform in the United States: A State by State Review’, International Insurance Law Review 4(3): 74–83.Google Scholar
Childs, B. (1989) ‘Are Torts Destroying our Courts?’, Business and Society Review 68: 38–42.Google Scholar
Clubb, S. (2003) ‘Another Doctor Leaving Alton’, The Telegraph. Available at http://www.zwire.com/site/printerFriendly.cfm?brd=1719&dept_id=25271&newsid=10268273.Google Scholar
Cohen, H. (2005) HR 534 (§ 8), 109th Congress. CRS report for Congress. Available at http://www.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/crsreports/crsdocuments/ RS2205403072005.pdf.Google Scholar
Commonwealth of Australia (2002) Review of the Law of Negligence Report. Available at http://revofneg.treasury.gov.au/content/review2.asp.Google Scholar
Commonwealth of Australia (2004) Reform of Liability Insurance Law in Australia. Available at http://www.treasury.gov.au/contentitem.asp?ContentID=799.Google Scholar
Cooksley, N. (2006) ‘Case Comment’, Journal of Personal Injury Law 4: C202–204.Google Scholar
Coppolo, G. (2003) Medical Malpractice – Attorneys’ Fees. OLR Research Report 2003-R-0664. Available at http://www.cga.ct.gov/2003/olrdata/jud/rpt/2003-R-0664.htm.Google Scholar
Coppolo, G. and Spigel, S. (2003) Medical Malpractice: No-fault Systems. OLR Research Report 2003-R-0885. Available at http://www.cga.ct.gov/2003/olrdata/ins/rpt/2003-R-0885.htm.Google Scholar
Corkill, B.(2002) Medical Misadventure – Development of the Statutory Concept, and its Place in the Current Medico-legal Environment. Available at http://www.acc.co.nz/for-providers/previous-news/WCM2_020595?ssSourceNodeId=3911&ssSourceSiteId=1494.Google Scholar
Coughlan, P. J. and Plott, C. R. (1997) An Experimental Analysis of the Structure of Legal Fees: American Rule vs English Rule. California Institute of Technology. Social Science Working Paper 1025.Google Scholar
Currie, C. M.(1998) ‘Mediation and Medical Disputes’, Mediation Quarterly 15(3): 215–26.Google Scholar
Damages Working Party of The Institute and Faculty of Actuaries (2005) Periodical payments and the Courts Act 2005. Available at http://www.actuaries.org.uk/files/pdf/proceedings/giro2005/Williams.pdf.Google Scholar
Dana, J. D. and Spier, K. E. (1993) ‘Expertise and Contingent Fees: The Role of Asymmetric Information in Attorney Compensation’, Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 9(2): 349–66.Google Scholar
Daniels, S. and Martin, J. (1999) ‘“It’s Darwinism – Survival of the Fittest”: How Markets and Reputations Shape the Ways in which Plaintiffs’ Lawyers Obtain Clients’, Law & Policy 21(4): 377–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danzon, P. M. (1984) ‘The Frequency and Severity of Malpractice Claims’, Journal of Law and Economics 27(1): 115–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danzon, P. M. (1984) ‘Tort Reform and the Role of Government in Private Insurance Markets’, The Journal of Legal Studies 13(3): 517–49.Google Scholar
Danzon, P. M. (1985) Medical Malpractice Theory, Evidence and Public Policy. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danzon, P. M. (1994) ‘Tort Reform: The Case of Medical Malpractice’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy 10(1): 84–98Google Scholar
Dauer, E. A. and Marcus, L. J. (1997) ‘Adapting Mediation to Link Resolution of Medical Malpractice Disputes with Health Care Quality Improvement’, Law & Contemporary Problems 60(1): 185–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department for Constitutional Affairs (2002) Regulatory Impact Assessment. Courts Bill: Power to Order Periodical Payments for Future Losses 2002. Available at http://www.dca.gov.uk/risk/ppria.htm.Google Scholar
Department for Constitutional Affairs (2007) The Law on Damages. Consultation Paper 9/07. Available at http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/damages/cp0907.htm.Google Scholar
Department of Health (2003) Making Amends. A Consultation Paper Setting Out Proposals for Reforming the Approach to Clinical Negligence in the NHS. A Report by the Chief Medical Officer. Available at http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4060945.pdf.Google Scholar
Department of Health (2005) NHS Redress: Statement of Policy. Available at http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsLegislation/DH_4123281.Google Scholar
Dingwall, R. and Fenn, P. (1994) ‘Is NHS Indemnity Working and is There a Better Way?’, British Journal of Anaesthesia 73: 69–77.Google Scholar
Does Mediation Work Better Than Trial for Settling Medical Malpractice Cases? (2002). Grant Results. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Available at http://www.rwjf.org/reports/grr/032057.htm.Google Scholar
Duclos, C. W., Eichler, M. and Taylor, L. (2005) ‘Patient Perspectives of Patient–Provider Communication After Adverse Events’, International Journal for Quality in Health Care 17(6): 479–86.Google Scholar
Dugan, K. F. and Haines, H. B. (2007) ‘Screening Panels for Medical Injury Claims under RSA 519-B: Implementation, Effect and Issues on the Horizon’, Bar Journal. Available at http://www.nhbar.org/publications/archives.Google Scholar
Ehrensweig, A. (1964) ‘Compulsory “Hospital Accident” Insurance: A Needed First Step Toward the Displacement of Liability for “Medical Malpractice”’, University of Chicago Law Review 31: 279–91.Google Scholar
Elgie, R. G., Caulfield, T. A. and Christie, M. I. (1993) Medical Injuries and Malpractice: Is it Time for No-fault?’, Health Law Journal 1: 97–117.Google ScholarPubMed
Emons, W. (2007) ‘Conditional Versus Contingent Fee’, Oxford Economic Papers 59: 89–101.Google Scholar
Emons, W. and Garoupa, N. (2006) ‘US-style Contingent Fees and UK-style Conditional Fees: Agency Problems and the Supply of Legal Services’, Managerial and Decision Economics 27: 379–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farber, H. S. and White, M. J. (1994) ‘A Comparison of Formal and Informal Dispute Resolution in Medical Malpractice’, Journal of Legal Studies 23(2): 777–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, A. and Pecorino, P. (2003) Dispute Rates and Contingency Fees: An Analysis from the Signaling Model. Working Paper Series 2003. University of Alabama. Available at http://www.cba.ua.edu/efl/working_papers/pdf/WP03-11-01.pdf.Google Scholar
Fauver, D. A. (2005) ‘Screening Panels Now Required in Med-mal Cases; Law Faces Possible Challenge’, New Hampshire Bar Association Bar News. Available at http://www.nhbar.org/publications/archives.Google Scholar
Fenn, P., Gray, A. and Rickman, N. (2004) ‘The Economics of Clinical Negligence Reform in England’, The Economic Journal 114: F272–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenn, P. and Mcguire, A. (1994) ‘The Assessment: The Economics of Legal Reform’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy 10(1):1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flood, C. M. (2000) New Zealand’s No Fault Accident Compensation Scheme: paradise or Panacea?’, Health Law Review 8(3): 3–11.Google Scholar
Flora v. Wakom (Heathrow) Ltd (nd) Indexation of Periodical Payments – Is the RPI the Only Method? Case Commentary. 12 King’s Bench Walk. Available at http://www.12kbw.co.uk/cases/commentary/id/92.Google Scholar
Franks, M. (1959) Limitation of Actions. London: Sweet & Maxwell.Google Scholar
FraserJr, J. J. Jr, J. J. (2001) American Academy of Paediatrics: Technical Report: Alternative Dispute Resolution in Medical Malpractice. Pediatrics 107(3): 602–607.Google Scholar
Frey, R. (nd) Medical Errors. Encyclopedia of Surgery: A Guide for Patients and Caregivers. Available at http://www.surgeryencyclopedia.com/La-Pa/Medical-Errors.html.Google Scholar
Friedenberg, R. M. (2004) ‘Malpractice Reform’, Radiology 231: 3–6.Google Scholar
Froeb, L. M. and Kobayashi, B. H. (1996) ‘Naive, Biased, Yet Bayesian: Can Juries Interpret Selectively Produced Evidence?’, Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 12(1): 257–76.Google Scholar
Gaine, W. J. (2003) ‘No-fault Compensation Systems: Experience Elsewhere Suggests it is Time for the UK to Introduce a Pilot Scheme’, British Medical Journal 326; 997–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genn, D. H., Fenn, P., Mason, M.et al. (2007) Twisting Arms: Court Referred and Court Linked Mediation Under Judicial Pressure. Ministry of Justice Research Series 1/07.Google Scholar
Gilmour, J. M. (2006) Patient Safety, Medical Error and Tort Law: An International Comparison. Final Report. Health Policy Research Programme. Health Canada 2006. Available at http://osgoode.yorku.ca/osgmedia.nsf/0/094676DE3FAD06A5852572330059253C/$FILE/FinalReport_Full.pdf.Google Scholar
Gravelle, H. and Waterson, M. (1993) ‘No Win, No Fee: Some Economics of Contingent Legal Fees’, Economic Journal 103(420): 1205–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberger, H. (1964) ‘The Cost of Justice: An American Problem, an English Solution’, Villanova Law Review 9: 400–14.Google Scholar
Guirguis-blake, J., Fryer, G. E., PhillipsJr, R. L. Jr, R. L.et al. (2006) ‘The US Medical Liability System: Evidence for Legislative Reform’, Annals of Family Medicine 4(3): 240–46.Google Scholar
Hanson, R., Ostrom, B. and Rottman, D. (1996) ‘What is the Role of State Doctrine in Understanding Tort Litigation?’ Michigan Law and Policy Review 1(1): 43–72.Google Scholar
Harleston, J. (2003) OLR Research Report. 2003-R-0465. Available at http://www.cga.ct.gov/2003/olrdata/ins/rpt/2003-R-0465.htm.Google Scholar
Harvey, M. (2007) ‘Case Comment’, Journal of Personal Injury Law 1: C23–28.Google Scholar
Hasbrouck, G. D. (1986) ‘Medical Malpractice – A Lottery No One Wins’, Health Care Strategic Management 4(3): 9–11.Google Scholar
Hatlie, M. J. and Sheridan, S. E. (2003) ‘The Medical Liability Crisis of 2003: Must We Squander the Chance to Put Patients First?’, Health Affairs 22(4): 37–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haug, M. R. (1976) ‘The Erosion of Professional Authority: A Cross-cultural Inquiry in the Case of the Physician’. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly. Health and Society 54(1): 83–106.Google Scholar
Havighurst, C. C. (1984) ‘Reforming Malpractice Law Through Consumer Choice’, Health Affairs 3(4): 63–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havighurst, C. C. and Tancredi, L. R. (1974) ‘“Medical Adversity Insurance” – A No-fault Approach to Medical Malpractice and Quality Assurance’, Insurance Law Journal 613: 69–70.Google Scholar
Hawkins, B. (2003) Medical Arbitration Agreements. Medical Ethics in Utah. Available at http://www.utahinternalmedicine.com/pageview.aspx?id=14427.Google Scholar
Helland, E. and Tabarrok, A. (2000) ‘Runaway Judges? Selection Effects and the Jury. Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 16(2): 306–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helland, E. and Tabarrok, A. (2003) ‘Contingency Fees, Settlement Delay and Low Quality Litigation: Empirical Evidence from Two Datasets’, Journal of Law Economics and Organisation 19(2): 517–42.Google Scholar
Hickson, G. B., Federspiel, C. F., Pichert, J. W.et al. (2005) ‘Patient Complaints and Malpractice Risk’, Journal of the American Medical Association 287(22): 2951–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofreuter, D. H. (1993) Study Tour Examines Health Care Systems in Germany, Holland – A Comparison of Three Health Care Systems, Part 1. Available at http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0843/is_n4_v19/ai_13240427/print.Google Scholar
Holmes, R. F. (nd) The Collateral Source Rule as a Rule of Evidence. Available at http://www.mclane.com/newsroom/articles/litigation/003.php.Google Scholar
Horner, J. S. (2000) ‘Autonomy in the Medical Profession in the United Kingdom – A Historical Perspective’, Theoretical Medicine 21(5): 409–23.Google Scholar
Horwitz, J. and Brennan, T. A. (1995) ‘No-fault Compensation for Medical Injury: A Case Study’, Health Affairs 14(4): 164–79.Google Scholar
Howell, B. (2004) ‘Medical Misadventure and Accident Compensation in New Zealand: An Incentive-based Analysis’, Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 35(4): 39. Available at http://www.austlii.edu.au/nz/journals/VUWLRev/2004/39.html.Google Scholar
Hubbard, C. (2000) ‘Culpability and Compensation in Canadian Health Care: Much Ado About No-fault?’, McGill Journal of Medicine 5(2): 111–16.Google Scholar
Huber, G. A. (2003) ‘Creating a Safe Environment’, Health Affairs 22(4): 41–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, J. W. and Snyder, E. A. (1995) ‘Litigation and Settlement Under the English and American Rules: Theory and Evidence’, Journal of Law & Economics 38: 225–50.Google Scholar
Huycke, L. I. and Huycke, M. M. (1994) ‘Characteristics of Potential Plaintiffs in Malpractice Litigation’, Annals of Internal Medicine 120(9): 792–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyde, C. E. (2006) ‘Conditional versus Contingent Fees: Litigation Expenditure Incentives’, International Review of Law and Economics 26: 180–94.Google Scholar
Illinois State Medical Society (2005) The Medical Litigation Crisis. Available at http://www.howardgroupinc.com/clients/lms_articles_2005.pdf.Google Scholar
Inselbuch, E. (2001) ‘Contingent Fees and Tort Reform: A Reassessment and Reality Check’, Law &Contemporary Problems 64(2/3): 175–95.Google Scholar
Isaacs, D. (2004) ‘Should Australia Introduce a Vaccine Injury Compensation Scheme?’, Journal of Paediatric Child Health 40: 247–49.Google Scholar
James, R. (1998) ‘The Limitation Period in Medical Negligence Claims’, Medical Law Review 6: 62–98.Google Scholar
Jones, W. C. (1956) ‘Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York: A Brief Survey’, Washington University Law Quarterly February: 193–221.Google Scholar
Kachalia, A., Choudhry, N. K. and Studdert, D. M. (2005) ‘Physician Responses to the Malpractice Crisis: From Defense to Offense’, Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 33(3): 416–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kane, C. K. and Emmons, D. W. (2005) The Impact of Caps on Damages. How are Markets for Medical Liability Insurance and Medical Services Affected? Policy Research Perspectives. American Medical Association. Available at http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/363/prp200502caps.pdf.Google Scholar
Katz, A. W. (1999) Indemnity of Legal Fees. Georgetown University. Available at http://encyclo.findlaw.com/7300book.pdf.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirstein, R. and Rickman, N. (2001/4) FORIS Contracts: Litigation Cost Shifting and Contingent Fees in Germany. Center for the Study of Law and Economics. Discussion Paper 2001–04. Available at http://www.uni-saarland.de/fak1/fr12/csle/publications/2001-04_foris.pdf.Google Scholar
Kleinjan, C. L. (nd) Mediation in Medical Malpractice Disputes in Pennsylvania. Available at http://www.adrlawinfo.com/pamedmalmediation.html.Google Scholar
Klement, A. and Neeman, Z. (2005) ‘Against Compromise: A Mechanism Design Approach’, Journal of Law, Economics and Organisation 21(2): 285–314.Google Scholar
Klick, J. and Stratmann, T. (2005) Does Medical Malpractice Reform Help States Retain Physicians and Does it Matter? Working Paper. Available at http://www.usc.edu/schools/business/FBE/seminars/papers/AE_2-17-06_STRATMANN-medmal.pdf.Google Scholar
Koenig, T. and Rustad, M. (1995) ‘His and Her Tort Reform: Gender Injustice in Disguise’, Washington Law Review 70(1): 1–90.Google Scholar
Konsument Europa (2005) Promoting Alternative Dispute Resolution. Baltic Sea Seminar, Stockholm 2005. Available at http://www.konsumenteuropa.se/Documents/Engelska/prom_alt_disp_resol_seminar_050527.pdf .Google Scholar
Kornhauser, L. A. and Revesz, R. L. (1994) ‘Multidefendant Settlements Under Joint and Several Liability: The Problem of Insolvency’, Journal of Legal Studies 23(1–2): 517–42.Google Scholar
Kostopoulou, O. and Shepherd, A. (2000) ‘Fragmentation of Treatment and the Potential for Human Error in Neonatal Intensive Care’, Topics in Health Information Management 20(4): 78–92.Google Scholar
Krause, C. F. (1982) ‘Structured Settlement for Tort Victims’, American Bar Association Journal 66: 1527–29.Google Scholar
Krause, H-R., Bremerich, A. and Rustemeyer, J. (2001) ‘Reasons for Patients’ Discontent and Litigation’, Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery 29: 181–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kridelbaugh, W. W. and Palmisano, D. J. (1997) ‘A 20-year Experience With Malpractice Screening Panels’, Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons 82(5). Available at http://www.facs.org/ahp/proliab/malpanel.html.Google Scholar
Kritzer, H. (2002) ‘Seven Dogged Myths Concerning Contingency Fees’, Washington University Law Quarterly 80: 739–85.Google Scholar
Larson, A. (2004) California Statute of Limitations for Civil and Personal Injury Actions – An Overview. ExpertLaw. Available at http://www.expertlaw.com/library/limitations_by_state/California.html.Google Scholar
Larson, A. (2004) Florida Statute of Limitations for Civil and Personal Injury Actions – An Overview. ExpertLaw. Available at http://www.expertlaw.com/library/limitations_by_state/Florida.html.Google Scholar
Larson, A. (2004) Missouri Statute of Limitations for Civil and Personal Injury Actions – An Overview. ExpertLaw. Available at http://www.expertlaw.com/library/limitations_by_state/Missouri.html.Google Scholar
Larson, A. (2004) New York Statute of Limitations for Civil and Personal Injury Actions – An Overview. ExpertLaw. Available at http://www.expertlaw.com/library/limitations_by_state/New_York.html.Google Scholar
Lavenant, C. E., Hayward, C. L. and Jesilow, P. (2002) ‘Tort Reform and Physician Sanctioning’, Law and Policy 24(1): 1–15.Google Scholar
Law Commission Consultation (1998) Paper 151. Limitation of Actions. Available at http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/limitation_actions.htm.Google Scholar
Law Commission Report (1994) Personal Injury Compensation: How Much is Enough? Law Com 1994, No 225.Google Scholar
Law Commission Report (1999) Damages for Personal Injury: Medical, Nursing and Other Expenses; Collateral Benefits. Item 1 of the Seventh Programme of Law Reform: Damages. Law Com 1999, No 262.Google Scholar
Law Council of Australia (2004) LCA Brief. Thresholds for General Damages. Available at http://www.lawcouncil.asn.au/get/publications/2404048740.pdf.Google Scholar
Law Reform Commission of British Columbia (1986) Report on Shared Liability. LRC 88.Google Scholar
Lee, H. D., Browne, M. J. and Schmit, J. T. (1994) ‘How Does Joint and Several Tort Reforms Affect the Rate of Tort Filings? Evidence from State Courts’, Journal of Risk and Insurance 61(2): 295–316.Google Scholar
Lewis, R. (1993) ‘Structured Settlements of Damages Awards in Britain and Canada’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 42: 780–95.Google Scholar
Lewis, R. (1993) ‘The Merits of a Structured Settlement: The Plaintiff’s Perspective’, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 13(4): 530–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, R. (1998) ‘Deducting Collateral Benefits from Damages: Principle and Policy’ Legal Studies 18(1): 15–40.Google Scholar
Lewis, R. (2005) ‘Insurance and the Tort System’, Legal Studies 25(1): 85–116.Google Scholar
Lewis, R. (2006) ‘The Politics and Economics of Tort Law: Judicially Imposed Periodical Payments of Damages’, Medical Law Review 69(3): 418–42.Google Scholar
Liang, B. A. (1997) ‘Assessing Medical Malpractice Jury Verdicts: A Case Study of an Anesthesiology Department.’, Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy 7(1): 121–64.Google Scholar
Liao, Y. P. and White, M. J. (2002) ‘No-fault for Motor Vehicles: An Economic Analysis’, American Law and Economics Review 4(2): 258–94.Google Scholar
Liebman, C. B. and Hyman, C. S. (2004) ‘A Mediation Skills Model to Manage Disclosure of Errors and Adverse Events to Patients’, Health Affairs 23(4): 22–32.Google Scholar
Localio, A. R., Lawthers, A. G., Brennan, T. A.et al. (1991) ‘Relation Between Malpractice Claims and Adverse Events Due to Negligence. Results of the Harvard Medical Practice Study III’, New England Journal of Medicine 325(4): 245–51.Google Scholar
Love, N. (2007) ‘Do Medical Malpractice Screening Panels Lower Costs or Save Time?’, Insurance Journal. Available at http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2007/10/12/84234.htm.Google Scholar
Love, N. (2007) ‘Medical Malpractice Screening Panel Laws Come Under Scrutiny’, Times Argus. Available at http://www.timesargus.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20071015/NEWS02/710150339/1003/NEWS02.Google Scholar
Luntz, H. (2005) ‘Damages in Medical Litigation in New South Wales’, Journal of Law and Medicine 12: 280–93.Google Scholar
Marchev, M. (2002) The Medical Malpractice Insurance Crisis: Opportunity for State Action. National Academy for State Health Policy. Available at http://www.nashp.org/Files/gnl48_medical_malpractice.PDF.Google Scholar
Maryland State Bar Ssociation (2007) MSBA State Legislative Program. Available at http://www.msba.org/sec_comm/committees/lawscomm.Google Scholar
Mason, D. P. (1993) ‘The Statute of Limitations’, Current Obstetrics &Gynaecology 3: 176–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maurer, K. (2003) Medical Justice Through Arbitration: We Can’t Sue Our Way to Better Healthcare. The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel, Inc. 11(3). Available at http://www.metrocorpcounsel.com.Google Scholar
Maurer, K. (2004) Arbitrating Healthcare Disputes: A Rational Alternative to the Lawsuit System. The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel, Inc. 38. Available at http://www.arb-forum.com/rcontrol/documents/ArticlesByFORUMStaff/ 200403MaurerMCC.pdf.Google Scholar
Mause, P. J. (1969) ‘Winner Takes All: A Re-examination of the Indemnity System’, Iowa Law Review 55: 26–55.Google Scholar
May, M. L. and Stengel, D. B. (1990) ‘Who Sues Their Doctors? How Patients Handle Medical Grievances’, Law & Society Review 24(1): 105–20.Google Scholar
Mcewin, R. I. (1999) 3600 No-fault Compensation Systems. Care Associates, Sydney, Australia. Available at http://encyclo.findlaw.com/3600book.pdf.Google Scholar
Mehlman, M. J. (2003) Resolving the Medical Malpractice Crisis: Fairness Considerations. Available at http://medliabilitypa.org/research/mehlman0603.Google Scholar
Meierhoefer, B. S. (1990) Court-annexed Arbitration in Ten District Courts. Federal Judicial Center. Available at http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/courtannarb.pdf/$File/courtannarb.pdf.Google Scholar
Mello, M. M. (2006) Medical Malpractice: Impact of the Crisis and Effect of State Tort Reforms. The Synthesis Project. Research Synthesis Report No. 10. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Available at http://www.rwjf.org/pr/synthesis/reports_and_briefs/pdf/no10_researchreport.pdf.Google Scholar
Mello, M. M. and Brennan, T. A. (2002) ‘Deterrence of Medical Errors: Theory and Evidence for Malpractice Reform’, Texas Law Review 80: 1595–637.Google Scholar
Mello, M. M., Studdert, D. M. and Desroches, C. M. (2004) ‘Caring for Patients in a Malpractice Crisis: Physician Satisfaction and Quality of Care’, Health Affairs 23(4): 42–53.Google Scholar
Mello, M. M., Studdert, D. M., Kachalia, A. B.et al. (2006) ‘“Health Courts” and Accountability for Patient Safety’, The Milbank Quarterly 84(3): 459–92.Google ScholarPubMed
Meschievitz, C. S. (1991) ‘Mediation and Medical Malpractice: Problems with Definition and Implementation’, Law and Contemporary Problems 54(11): 195–215.Google Scholar
Messer, B. (1986) ‘What We Have is a Litigation Lottery’, Texas Hospital 42(6): 16–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Metzloff, T. B., Peeples, R. A. and Harris, C. T. (1997) ‘Empirical Perspectives on Mediation and Malpractice’, Law and Contemporary Problems 60(1): 107–52.Google Scholar
Miceli, T. J. (2000) ‘Deterrence, Litigation Costs and the Statute of Limitation for Tort Suits’, International Review of Law &Economics 20: 383–94.Google Scholar
Moore, S. R. (2006) Limitations and Joint and Several Liability. Available at http://www.blaney.com/files/article_limitations-liability.pdf.Google Scholar
Moorehouse, J. (2003) ‘An Economic Explanation of the Dual Contingent Fee’, Florida State University Business Review 3: 43–56.Google Scholar
Morris, A. (2007) ‘Spiralling or Stabilising? The Compensation Culture and Our Propensity to Claim Damages for Personal Injury’, Modern Law Review 70(3): 349–78.Google Scholar
Mosher, J. (1994) ‘Challenging Limitation Periods: Civil Claims by Adult Survivors of Incest’, University of Toronto Law Journal 44(2): 169–222.Google Scholar
Mueller, G. T. (1997) ‘The Medical Malpractice Statute of Limitation: In Need of Reform’, Journal of the Missouri Bar 53(6). Available at http://www.mobar.org/journal/1997/novdec/mueller.htm.Google Scholar
National Audit Office (2005) A Safer Place for Patients: Learning to Improve Patient Safety. HC 456, Session 2005–2006. Available at http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/05-06/0506456.pdf.Google Scholar
National Conference of State Legislatures (2002) State Medical Liability Laws. Available at http://www.ncsl.org/programs/insur/medliability.pdf.Google Scholar
Nelson, L. J. (1989) ‘Tort Reform in Alabama: Some Constitutional Issues’, Alabama Law Review 40: 533–73.Google Scholar
Nelson, L. J., Morrisey, M. A. and Kilgore, M. (2007) ‘Damages Caps in Medical Malpractice Cases’, The Milbank Quarterly 85(2): 259–86.Google Scholar
Nieto, M. (1997) Overview of Arbitration in California Managed Health Care Plans. California Research Bureau 4(5). Available at http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/CRBSearch.aspx.Google Scholar
Nieto, M. and Hosel, M. (2000) Arbitration in California Managed Health Care Systems. California Research Bureau. Available at http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/00/09/00-009.pdf.Google Scholar
NZ Office of the Minister for ACC (2004) Medical Misadventure Review – Conclusions and Recommendations. Available at http://www.acc.co.nz/PRD_EXT_CSMP/groups/external_providers/documents/internet/wcmz002405.doc.Google Scholar
O’connell, J. (1975) ‘An Elective No-fault Liability Statute’, Insurance Law Journal 628: 261–64.Google Scholar
Oliphant, K. (1996) ‘Defining “Medical Misadventure”. Lessons from New Zealand’, Medical Law Review 4: 1–31.Google Scholar
Ontario Law Reform Commission (1988) Report on Contribution Among Wrongdoers and Contributory Negligence.Google Scholar
Ott, M. C. (1972) ‘Mediation as a Method of Conflict Resolution: Two Cases’, International Organization 26(4): 595–618.Google Scholar
Pampa News, The (2007) ‘Legislation Caused Influx of Doctors to Texas’. Available at http://www.bmpllp.com/news_events/media_coverage.php?action=display_news&news_id=100.Google Scholar
Parness, J. A. and Leonetti, A. (1997) ‘Expert Opinion Pleading: Any Merit to Special Certificates of Merit?’, Brigham Young University Law Review 3: 537–90.Google Scholar
Patten, K. (2006) ‘Limitation Periods in Personal Injury Claims – Justice Obstructed?’, Civil Justice Quarterly 25: 349–66.Google Scholar
Peck, P. (2005) ‘Defensive Medicine is Norm if Malpractice Threatens. MedPage Today. Available at http://www.medpagetoday.com/tbindex.cfm?tbid=1130&topicid=61.Google Scholar
Peeples, R., Harris, C. T. and Metzloff, T. B. (2000) ‘Settlement Has Many Faces: Physicians, Attorneys and Medical Malpractice’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41(3):333–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pletcher, M. G. (2004) ‘A Review of Tort Reform's Impact on Malpractice Premiums: Is it the Answer?’, Group Practice Journal 53(4). Available at http://www.bmpllp.com/publications/articles.php?action=display_publication&publication_id=28.Google Scholar
Polinsky, A. M. and Rubinfeld, D. L. (2001) A Note on Settlements Under the Contingent Fee Method of Compensating Lawyers. Berkeley Program in Law &Economics, Working Paper Series 57. Available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/blewp/57.Google Scholar
Posner, R. A. (2003) Economic Analysis of Law (6th edn). New York: Aspen Publishers.Google Scholar
Prichard, J. R. S. (1990) Liability and Compensation in Health Care: A Report to the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health of the Federal/Provincial/Territorial Review on Liability and Compensation Issues in Health Care. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Pulliam, M. S. (1995) ‘Attorneys’ Fleece: Some Potential Dangers of “Loser-Pays”’, Reason. Available at http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1568/is_n6_v27/ai_17491714/print.Google Scholar
Queensland Law Society Personal Injuries Conference (2007) A Review of the Civil Liability Act and Tort Reform in Queensland. Opening Plenary Forum Discussion. Available at http://www.courts.qld.gov.au/publications/articles/speeches/2007/dejersey290607.pdf.Google Scholar
Rand Institute for Civil Justice (1999) Binding Arbitration is Not Frequently Used to Resolve Health Care Disputes. Available at http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9030/index1.html.Google Scholar
Rauma, D. and Krafka, C. (1994) Voluntary Arbitration in Eight Federal District Courts: An Evaluation. Federal Judicial Center. Available at http://www.fjc.gov/library/fjc_catalog.nsf/autoframepage!openform&url=/library/fjc_catalog.nsf/DPublication!openform&parentunid=0ABD797C482B202F85256CA30067A212.Google Scholar
Report of The Quality Interagency Coordination Task Force (Quic) to the President (2000) Doing What Counts for Patient Safety: Federal Actions to Reduce Medical Errors and Their Impact. Available at http://www.quic.gov/report/toc.htm.Google Scholar
Report of the Royal Commission On Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injury (1978), Cmnd 7054, Volume 1, Chapter 13.Google Scholar
Roberts, R. G. (2002) ‘Understanding the Physician Liability Insurance Crisis’, Family Practice Management October: 47–51.Google Scholar
Roebuck, D. (2001) Ancient Greek Arbitration. Holo Books/The Arbitration Press.Google Scholar
Roebuck, D. (2004) Roman Arbitration. Holo Books/The Arbitration Press.Google Scholar
Rosenfield, H. (2003) Foundation for Taxpayer and Consumer Rights. Testimony Before the House Energy and Commerce Committee (Pennsylvania). Available at http://www.consumerwatchdog.org/ healthcare/rp/rp003105.pdf.Google Scholar
Rubinfeld, D. L. (1984) ‘On Determining the Optimal Magnitude and Length of Liability in Torts’, Journal of Legal Studies 13(3): 551–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubinfeld, D. and Scotchmer, S. (1993) ‘Contingent Fees for Attorneys: An Economic Analysis’, RAND Journal of Economics 24(3): 343–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saks, M. J., Hollinger, L. A., Wissler, R. L.et al. (1997) ‘Reducing Variability in Civil Jury Awards’, Law and Human Behavior 21(3): 243–56.Google Scholar
San Antonio Express-News (2007) ‘Insurance Companies, Doctors Flock to Texas’, Available at http://www.bmpllp.com/news_events/media_coverage.php?action=display_news&news_id=108.Google Scholar
Schap, D. and Feeley, A. (2006) The Collateral Source Rule: A Common Law Norm Under Special Interest Attack. Faculty Research Series, Paper No. 06-06.Google Scholar
Schepens, T. (2007) Bridging the Funding Gap – The Economics of Cost Shifting, Fee Arrangements and Legal Expenses Insurance and Their Prospects for Improving the Access to Civil Justice. German Working Papers in Law and Economics, Paper 1. Available at https://archive.ugent.be/retrieve/3748/Tom+Schepens+(2007)+Bridging+the+Funding+Gap.pdf.Google Scholar
Schmit, J. T., Browne, M. J. and Lee, H. D. (1997) ‘The Effect of State Tort Reforms on Claims Filings’, Risk Management and Insurance Review 1(1): 1–17.Google Scholar
Schott, C. R. (2001) ‘Where Have All the Doctors Gone?’, Physician’s News Digest. Available at http://physiciansnews.com/commentary/201dv.html.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. T. (1994) ‘Reality in the Economic Analysis of Tort Law: Does Tort Law Really Deter?’, UCLA Law Review 42(2): 377–444.Google Scholar
Shah, P. and Shuren, A. W. (2005) ‘The Current Medical Malpractice Environment: An Analysis of Causes and Solutions’, Journal of Paediatric Health Care 19: 112–16.Google Scholar
Shmanske, S. and Stevens, T. (1986) ‘The Performance of Medical Malpractice Review Panels’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 11(3): 525–35.Google Scholar
Short, A. (2005) Structured Settlements 101: Structured Settlements at Work. Ezine Articles. Available at http://ezinearticles.com.Google Scholar
Siegel, J. (2004) ‘Frist: Doctors Leaving Ohio’, The Enquirer. Available at http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2004/10/14/loc_fristdocs.html.Google Scholar
Sloan, F. A. (1985) ‘State Responses to the Malpractice Insurance “Crisis” of the 1970s: An Empirical Assessment’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 9(4): 629–46.Google Scholar
Sloan, F. A. (2003) ‘Limiting Damages for “Pain and Suffering” in Medical Malpractice’, North Carolina Medical Journal 64(4): 191–94.Google Scholar
Sloan, F. A., Githens, P. B., Clayton, E. W.et al. (1993) Suing for Medical Malpractice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sloan, F. A. and Hsieh, C. R. (1990) ‘Variability in Medical Malpractice Payments: Is the Compensation Fair?’, Law and Society Review 24(4): 601–50.Google Scholar
Sloan, F. A., Mergenhagen, P. M. and Bovbjerg, R. R. (1989) ‘Effects of Tort Reforms on the Value of Closed Medical Malpractice Claims: A Microanalysis’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 14(4): 663–89.Google Scholar
Smith, M. L. (2005) ‘Deterrence and Origin of Legal System: Evidence from 1950–1999’, American Law and Economics Review 7(2): 350–78.Google Scholar
Snyder, E. A. and Hughes, J. W. (1990) ‘The English Rule for Allocating Legal Costs: Evidence Confronts Theory’, Journal of Law, Economics &Organization 6: 345–80.Google Scholar
Sorrel, A. L. (2007) Maine Court Questions Liability Panels. Additional Information. American Medical News. American Medical Association. Available at http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2007/08/06/prsa0806.htm.Google Scholar
Statutes of Limitations in All 50 States (nd) Available at http://www.nolo.com.Google Scholar
Stoebuck, W. B. (1966) ‘Counsel Fees Included in Costs: A Logical Development’, University of Colorado Law Review 38: 202–18.Google Scholar
Structured Settlement Legislation Country by Country (nd) Available at http://www.structuredsettlementguidepost.com/home/law-by-jurisdiction.html.Google Scholar
Struve, C. T. (2003) ‘Improving the Medical Malpractice Litigation Process’, Health Affairs 23(4): 33–41.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M. (1997) ‘Can the United States Afford a “No-fault” System of Compensation for Medical Injury?’, Law and Contemporary Problems 60(2): 1–34.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M., Mello, M. M. and Brennan, T. A. (2004) ‘Medical Malpractice’, New England Journal of Medicine 350(3): 283–92.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M., Mello, M. M. and Gawande, A. A. (2006) ‘Claims, Errors and Compensation Payments in Medical Malpractice Litigation’, New England Journal of Medicine 354(19): 2024–33.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M., Mello, M. M., Sage, W. M.et al. (2005) ‘Defensive Medicine Among High-risk Specialist Physicians in a Volatile Malpractice Environment’, Journal of the American Medical Association 293(21): 2609–17.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M., Thomas, E. J., Burstin, H. R.et al. (2000) ‘Negligent Care and Malpractice Claiming Behaviour in Utah and Colorado’, Med Care 38: 250–60.Google Scholar
Studdert, D. M., Yang, Y. T. and Mello, M. M. (2004) ‘Are Damages Caps Regressive? A Study of Malpractice Jury Verdicts in California’ Health Affairs 23(4): 54–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, W. M. (1999) What is Left of Professionalism After Managed Care? Hastings Center Report 29: 7–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swanson, T. (1991) ‘The Importance of Contingency Fee Arrangements’, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 11(2): 193–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talaga, T. and Cribb, R. (2007) ‘Coming Clean on Medical Mistakes’, The Star.com. Available at http://www.thestar.com/printArticle/193502.Google Scholar
Tancredi, L. R. (1982) ‘Designated Compensable Events: A No-fault Approach to Medical Malpractice’, Law, Medicine & Health Care 10(6): 200–203.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. (2003) ‘Clinical Negligence Reform: Lessons From France?’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 52: 737–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tena-tamayo, C. and Sotelo, J. (2005) ‘Malpractice in Mexico: Arbitration not Litigation’, British Medical Journal 331: 448–51.Google Scholar
The Royal Society of Edinburgh (2002) Encouraging Resolution: Mediating Patient/Health Services Disputes in Scotland. Available at http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/rse_press/2002/mediation.htm.Google Scholar
Thomason, T. (1991) ‘Are Attorneys Paid What They’re Worth? Contingent Fees and the Settlement Process’, Journal of Legal Studies 20(1): 187–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorpe, K. E. (2004) The Medical Malpractice ‘Crisis’: Recent Trends and the Impact of State Tort Reforms. Health Affairs Web Exclusive. Available at http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/reprint/hlthaff.w4.20v1.pdf.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, E. and Potts, R. (2007) ‘Valuing Periodical Payments in a Post-Thompstone World’, Journal of Personal Injury Law 2: 173–78.Google Scholar
Turnball, E. (2001) All Components of the System Must be Aligned. Healthcare Papers 2(1): 38–43, Discussion 86–89.Google Scholar
University of Alberta, Institute of Law Research and Reform (1979) Contributory Negligence and Concurrent Wrongdoers, Report 31.Google Scholar
Us Congress, Office of The Technology Assessment (1993) Impact of Legal Reforms on Medical Malpractice Costs, OTA-BP-H-1 19. Washington, DC. Available at http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/policy/9329.pdf.Google Scholar
Us Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (2002) Update on the Medical Litigation Crisis: Not the Result of the ‘Insurance Cycle’. Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/mlupd2.htm.Google Scholar
Us Department of Health and Human Services, Office of The Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (2003) Addressing the New Health Care Crisis: Reforming the Medical Litigation System to Improve Quality of Health Care. Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/medliab.htm.Google Scholar
Us General Accounting Office (2003) Medical Malpractice: Implications of Rising Premiums on Access to Health Care, GAO-03-836. Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03836.pdf.Google Scholar
Vidmar, N. (1994) ‘Making Inferences About Jury Behaviour From Jury Verdict Statistics’, Law and Human Behaviour 18(6): 599–617.Google Scholar
Vincent, C., Phillips, A. and Young, M. (1994) ‘Why Do People Sue Doctors? A Study of Patients and Relatives Taking Legal Action’, The Lancet 343(8913): 1609–13.Google Scholar
Viscusi, W. K. (1988) ‘Pain and Suffering in Product Liability Cases: Systematic Compensation or Capricious Awards?’, International Review of Law and Economics 8(2): 203–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viscusi, W. K. (2004) ‘Tort Reform and Insurance Markets’, Risk Management and Insurance Review 7(1): 9–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viscusi, W. K. and Born, P. H. (2005) ‘Damages Caps, Insurability, and the Performance of Medical Malpractice Insurance’, Journal of Risk and Insurance 72(1): 23–43.Google Scholar
Viscusi, W. K., Zeckhauser, R. J., Born, P.et al. (1993) ‘The Effect of 1980s Tort Reform Legislation on General Liability and Medical Malpractice Insurance’, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 6: 165–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wadlington, W. (1991) ‘Medical Injury Compensation, a Time For Testing New Approaches’, JAMA 265: 2861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wall, J. A., Stark, J. B. and Standifer, R. L. (2001) ‘Mediation: A Current Review and Theory Development’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 45(3): 370–91.Google Scholar
Walshe, K. and Buttery, Y. (1995) ‘Measuring the Impact of Audit and Quality Improvement Activities’, Journal of the Association for Quality in Healthcare 2: 13–47.Google Scholar
Webb, D. (2006) Conditional Fee Agreements. A report for the Board of the New Zealand Law Society.Google Scholar
Weiler, P. C., Hiatt, H. H. and Newhouse, J. P. (1993) A Measure of Malpractice: Medical Injury, Malpractice Litigation and Patient Compensation. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Weinstein, L. (1988) ‘Malpractice – The Syndrome of the 80s’, Obstetrics & Gynecology 72(1): 130–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Weisenfeld, M. D. (1988) ‘The New Lottery – Malpractice Litigation. An Analysis’, Journal of the Michigan Dental Association 70(9): 416–17.Google Scholar
Weiss, G. G. (2005) ‘Malpractice: How Fear Changes Practice’, Medical Economics 82: 80–84.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. (2006) Arguments For/Against Loser Pays. PointofLaw.com. Available at http://www.pointoflaw.com/archives/003274.php.Google Scholar
Wittman, D. (2003) ‘Lay Juries, Professional Arbitrators, and the Arbitrator Selection Hypothesis’, American Law and Economics Review 5(1): 61–93.Google Scholar
Wojcik, J. (1993) ‘Florida Rulings Cap Liability’, Business Insurance 27(2): 43–44.Google Scholar
Wong, B. K. Y. (2003) ‘Dispute Resolution by Officials in Traditional Chinese Legal Culture’, eLaw Journal 10(2). Available at http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v10n2/wong102.html.Google Scholar
Yoon, A. (2001) ‘Damage Caps and Civil Litigation: An Empirical Study of Medical Malpractice Litigation in the South’, American Law and Economics Review 3(2): 199–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoon, A. (2004) ‘Mandatory Arbitration and Civil Litigation: An Empirical Study of Medical Malpractice Litigation in the West’, American Law and Economics Review 6(1): 95–134.Google Scholar
Zander, M. (2002) ‘Where Are We Now On Conditional Fees? – Or Why This Emperor is Wearing Few, If Any, Clothes’, Modern Law Review 65(6): 919–30.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, S., Bovbjerg, R. R. and Sloan, F. (1990) ‘Effects of Tort Reforms and Other Factors on Medical Malpractice Insurance Premiums’, Inquiry 27(2): 167–82.Google ScholarPubMed