Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T20:04:07.386Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Syria and its Regional Neighbors: A Case of Cultural Property Protection Policy Failure?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2015

Neil Brodie
Neil Brodie*
Affiliation:
Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research, University of Glasgow, Ivy Lodge, 63 Gibson Street, Glasgow, G12 8LR. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around standards and practices enshrined within the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (including its First and Second Protocols) and the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Policy emphasis is on the in situ protection of cultural sites and the recovery and return of stolen or looted cultural objects. But policy initiatives have very obviously failed to stop the plunder and illegal trade of cultural objects in Syria, as they have failed before for neighboring countries. This paper describes why policy initiatives aimed at site protection and object recovery have failed and how policy might be improved by a market reduction approach aimed at subduing demand.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Cultural Property , Volume 22 , Issue 2-3 , August 2015 , pp. 317 - 335
Copyright
Copyright © International Cultural Property Society 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abdulrahman, Ammar. 2001. “The New Syrian Law on Antiquities.” In Trade in Illicit Antiquities: The Destruction of the World’s Archaeological Heritage, edited by Brodie, Neil, Doole, Jennifer, and Renfrew, Colin, 111–14. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Ali, Cheikhmous. 2013. “Syrian Heritage Under Threat.”Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 1, no. 4: 351–66.Google Scholar
Bisheh, Ghazi. 2001. “One Damn Illicit Excavation after Another: the Destruction of the Archaeological Heritage of Jordan.” In Trade in Illicit Antiquities: The Destruction of the World’s Archaeological Heritage, edited by Brodie, Neil, Doole, Jennifer, and Renfrew, Colin, 115–18. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2002. “Introduction.” In Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology, edited by Brodie, Neil and Tubb, Kathryn Walker, 1–22. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2006. “Iraq 1990–2004 and the London Antiquities Market.” In Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, and the Antiquities Trade, edited by Brodie, Neil, Kersel, Morag M., Luke, Christina, and Tubb, Kathryn Walker, 206–26. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2008. “The Western Market in Iraqi Antiquities.” In Preventing Looting in Wartime: Learning from the Lessons of Iraq, edited by Rothfield, Lawrence, 63–74. Walnut Creek: AltaMira.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2009. “Consensual Relations? Academic Involvement in the Illegal Trade in Ancient Manuscripts.” In Criminology and Archaeology: Studies in Looted Antiquities, edited by Mackenzie, Simon and Green, Penny, 41–58. Oxford: Hart.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2011. “Scholarship and Insurgency? The Study and Trade of Iraqi Antiquities.” In Illicit Traffic of Cultural Objects: Law, Ethics, and the Realities. An Institute of Advanced Studies Workshop, 4–5 August. Perth: University of Western Australia,http://traffickingculture.org/publications/brodie-neil-2011-scholarship-and-insurgency-the-study-and-trade-of-iraqi-antiquities-in-illicit-traffic-of-cultural-objects-law-ethics-and-the-realities-an-institute-of-advanced-studies-works/ (accessed 30 May 2015).Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil. 2014. “The Antiquities Market: It’s All in a Price.”Heritage and Society 7, no. 1: 32–46.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil and Contreras, Daniel. 2012. “The Economics of the Looted Archaeological Site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ': A View from Google Earth.” In All The Kings Horses: Looting, Antiquities Trafficking and the Integrity of the Archaeological Record, edited by Lazrus, Paula K. and Barker, Alex W., 9–24. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology.Google Scholar
Brodie, Neil and Kersel, Morag M.. 2014. “Wikileaks, Text and Archaeology: The Case of the Schøyen Incantation Bowls.” In Archaeologies of Text, edited by Rutz, Matthew T. and Kersel, Morag M., 198–213. Oxford: Oxbow.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casana, Jesse and Panahipour, Mitra. 2014. “Notes on a Disappearing Past: Satellite-Based Monitoring of Looting and Damage to Archaeological Sites in Syria.”Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 2, no. 2: 128–51.Google Scholar
Chappell, Duncan and Polk, Kenneth. 2011. “Unravelling the Cordata: Just How Organised is the International Traffic in Cultural Objects?” In Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property, edited by Manacorda, Stefano and Chappell, Duncan, 99–116. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Contreras, Daniel and Brodie, Neil. 2010. “Quantifying Destruction: An Evaluation of the Utility of Publicly-available Satellite Imagery for Investigating Looting of Archaeological Sites in Jordan.” Journal of Field Archaeology 35: 101–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, Emma. 2012. “Damage to the Soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict.” Palo Alto: Global Heritage Fund,http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf (accessed 26 September 2014).Google Scholar
Curtis, John, Raheed, Qais Hussein, Clarke, Hugo, Hamdani, Abdulamir Al, Stone, Elizabeth, van Ess, Margarete, Collins, Paul and Mehsin, Ali. 2008. “An Assessment of Archaeological Sites in June 2008: An Iraqi-British Project.” London: British Museum, http://www.britishmuseum.org/PDF/Iraq%20Report_with%20images.pdf (accessed 16 October 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DGAM. 2014. “Annual Report 2013. Damascus: Syrian Arab Republic, Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums,”http://dgam.gov.sy/archive/docs/File/downloads/dgam_report_2013_en.pdf (accessed 16 October 2014).Google Scholar
Fossey, John M. 2014. “Illicit Traffic in Antiquities: Some Canadian Experiences.” In Cultural Property Crime: An Overview and Analysis of Contemporary Perspectives and Trends, edited by Kila, Joris D. and Balcells, Marc, 206–20. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, David J., MacDonald, Sally and Renfrew, Colin. 2005. An Inquiry into the Provenance of 654 Aramaic Incantation Bowls Delivered into the Possession of UCL by, or on the Instruction of, Mr Martin Schøyen. London: University College London.Google Scholar
Gerstenblith, Patty. 2009. “Increasing Effectiveness of the Legal Regime for the Protection of the International Archaeological Heritage.” In Cultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization, and Commerce, edited by Nafziger, James A. R. and Nicgorski, Ann M., 305–24. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Gibson, McGuire. 2009. “Legal and Illegal Acquisition of Antiquities in Iraq, 19th Century to 2003.” In Cultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization, and Commerce, edited by Nafziger, James A. R. and Nicgorski, Ann M., 185–98. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Grissman, Carla. 2006. “The Kabul Museum: In Turbulent Years.” In Art and Archaeology of Afghanistan: Its Fall and Survival, edited by van Krieken-Pieters, Juliette, 61–78. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, Kathryn. 2011. “Ancient Artifacts and Modern Conflict: A Case Study of Looting and Instability in Iraq.” In Cultural Heritage, Ethics, and the Military, edited by Stone, Peter, 113–28. Martlesham: Boydell and Brewer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hladik, Jan. 2013. “The UNESCO Conventions on the Protection of Cultural Property.” In Culture and Development: Stop the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property, edited by van Hooff, Herman, 14–18. Havana: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Kersel, Morag M., and Chesson, Meredith S.. 2013. “Looting Matters: Early Bronze Age Cemeteries of Jordan’s Southeast Dead Sea Plain in the Past and Present.” In Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial, edited by Stutz, Liv Nilsson and Tarlow, Sarah, 677–94. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lawler, Andrew. 2001. “Destruction in Mesopotamia.” Science 293: 32–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon. 2011. “The Market as Criminal and Criminals in the Market: Reducing Opportunities for Organized Crime in the International Antiquities Market.” In Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property, edited by Manacorda, Stefano and Chappell, Duncan, 69–86. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon. 2014. “Conditions for Guilt-free Consumption in a Transnational Criminal Market.”European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 20, no. 4: 503–15.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon and Davis, Tess. 2014. “Temple Looting in Cambodia Anatomy of a Statue Trafficking Network.” British Journal of Criminology 54: 722–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon and Green, Penny. 2009. “Criminalising the Market in Illicit Antiquities: An Evaluation of the Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003 in England and Wales.” In Criminology and Archaeology: Studies in Looted Antiquities, edited by Mackenzie, Simon and Green, Penny, 145–70. Oxford: Hart.Google Scholar
Manacorda, Stefano. 2011. “Criminal Law Protection of Cultural Heritage: An International Perspective.” In Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property, edited by Manacorda, Stefano and Chappell, Duncan, 17–50. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, Gretchen. 2010. Crime and Insurgency in the Tribal Areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan. West Point: Combating Terrorism Center, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/crime-and-insurgency-in-the-tribal-areas-of-afghanistan-and-pakistan (accessed 16 October 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, Gretchen. 2009. “More than 1,500 Stolen Afghan Artifacts Return to Kabul.” National Geographic, 6 March, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090306-afghanistan-artifacts-returned-missions.html (accessed 16 October 2014).Google Scholar
Planche, Edouard. 2013. “The 1970 Convention.” In Culture and Development: Stop the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property, edited by van Hooff, Herman, 20–22. Havana: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Politis, Konstantinos. 2002. “Dealing with the Dealers and the Tomb Robbers: The Realities of the Archaeology of the Ghor es-Safi in Jordan.” In Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology, edited by Brodie, Neil and Tubb, Kathryn Walker, 257–67. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Polk, Kenneth. 2009. “Whither Criminology in the Study of the Traffic in Illicit Antiquities?” In Criminology and Archaeology: Studies in Looted Antiquities, edited by Mackenzie, Simon and Green, Penny, 13–28. Oxford: Hart.Google Scholar
Prott, Lyndel. 2011. “Strengths and Weaknesses of the 1970 Convention: An Evaluation 40 Years after its Adoption.” Paris: UNESCO, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Brussels/pdf/strengths%20and%20weaknesses%20of%20the1970%20convention.pdf (accessed 17 October 2014).Google Scholar
Rose, Jerome C. and Burke, Dolores L.. 2004. “Making Money from Buried Treasure.”Culture without Context 14: 4–8.Google Scholar
Rothfield, Lawrence. 2009. The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, John. 2008. “Efforts to Protect Archaeological Sites and Monuments in Iraq, 2003–2004.” In Catastrophe! The Looting and Destruction of Iraq’s Past, edited by Emberling, Geoff and Hanson, Katharyn, 29–44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Ulph, Janet and Smith, Ian. 2012. The Illicit Trade in Art and Antiquities. Oxford: Hart.Google Scholar
UNESCO Report. 2013. “Regional Training on Syrian Cultural Heritage: Addressing the Issue of Illicit Trafficking.” Amman: UNESCO, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Amman/pdf/2013032_Report_Syria_workshop_FINAL_01.pdf (accessed 17 October 2014).Google Scholar
Watson, Peter and Todeschini, Cecilia. 2007. The Medici Conspiracy. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Williams, Phil. 2009. Criminals, Militias, and Insurgents: Organized Crime in Iraq. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=930 (accessed 28 September 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar