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COMMUNAL RELIGION IN JIANGNAN DELTA RURAL VILLAGES IN LATE IMPERIAL CHINA

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 June 2011

Hamashima Atsutoshi
Hamashima Atsutoshi
Affiliation:
Ji'nan University, Taizhong. E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article addresses the broad question of the sense of community in traditional Chinese villages, through consideration of popular cults found throughout the most highly developed region in Late Imperial China: the Jiangnan Delta. A key clue is a large-scale tenant-farmer revolt in Zhaowen County in 1846. When the uprising was suppressed, not only were twenty human ringleaders executed, but images of four local gods from village temples, who were believed to have sanctioned the rebellion, were also seized by the authorities and exposed for one year at the gates of the Zhaowen County City God temple. All four had three characteristics in common: (1) they were anthropomorphic, with human names; (2) they had living descendants of the same surname; (3) all were associated with stories involving miraculous protection of tax grain transport to the North. The descendants of these gods, all possession-type spirit mediums, or shamans, based in the villages, created the gods in response to the needs of their clients, large-scale landlords who bore responsibility for sea transport of tax grain to the North. In the mid-sixteenth century, fundamental socio-economic changes took place in the Jiangnan Delta. The landlords disappeared from the villages, leaving only the farmers, who were turning to cottage industries for cash to supplement inadequate food crop yields. The spirit mediums responded to the changes and modified their gods for a new set of clients, resulting in the survival of these cults down to the present day.

Keywords

Chinese religionpopular religionlocal deitieslocal societyChinese social history
Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , July 2011 , pp. 127 - 162
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

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References

REFERENCES

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Hamashima 1992 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Mingmo Jiangnan xiangshen de jiating jingji: guanyu Nanxunzhen Zhuang shi de jiagui” 明末江南乡绅的家庭经济—关于南浔镇庄氏的家规 (“Household economics of the gentry in late Ming Jiangnan: on the regulations of the Zhuang family of Nanxun town”). Mingshi yanjiu 明史研究 (“Research in Ming History”) (Zhongguo Mingshi Xuehui), vol. 2 (1992), pp. 83–92.Google Scholar
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Hoshi 1964 Hoshi Ayao, 星斌夫. Mindai sōun no kenkyū 明代漕運の研究. Tokyo: Gakujutsu Shinkōkai 学術振興会, 1964. Translated by Mark, Elvin as The Ming Tribute Grain System (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969).Google Scholar
Liang 2001 Liang Fangzhong, 梁方仲. Mingdai liangzhang zhidu 明代糧長制度 (“The liangzhang system in the Ming Dynasty”). Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1957; 2nd ed, 2001.Google Scholar
Oyama 1992 Oyama Masaaki, 小山正明. “Mindai no ryōchō nitsuite: tokuni zenhanki no Kōnan Deruta chitai o chūshin nishite” 明代の粮長について—とくに前半期の江南デルタ地帯を中心にして (“On the liangzhang of the Ming Dynasty: focusing on the Jiangnan Delta region during the first half of the period”). Reprinted in Oyama, Min Shin shakai keizaishi kenkyū 明清社会経済史研究 (“Research in Ming and Qing Socioeconomic History”), part I.8. Tokyo University Press, 1992. (Originally published 1969.)Google Scholar
Skinner 1976 Skinner, G. William, . “Mobility Strategies in Late Imperial China: a Regional-Systems Analysis.” In Regional Analysis, vol. 1, ed. Carol, A. Smith. New York: Academic Press, 1976, pp. 327–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Weber 1958 Weber, Max, . The City, trans. Don, Martindale and Gertrud, Neuwirth. New York: Free Press, 1958.Google Scholar
Zhejiangsheng 1986 Zhejiangsheng Minsu Xuehui, 浙江省民俗学会, comp. Zhejiang fengsu jianzhi 浙江风俗简志 (“A brief survey of Zhejiang customs”). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Renmin Chubanshe, 1986.Google Scholar
Zhu 2008 Zhu Haibin, 朱海濱. Jisi zhengce yu minjian xinyang bianqian 祭祀政策与民间信仰变迁 (“Ritual policy and changes in popular belief”). Shanghai: Fudan Daxue Chubanshe, 2008.Google Scholar
Dongjiangjia cangjiDongjiangjia cangji 東江家藏集 (“Collected documents from an eastern Songjiang household”).Google Scholar
Jiangningxian xiangtuzhiJiangningxian xiangtuzhi 江寧縣鄉土誌 (“Gazetteer of Jiangning County”). Nanjing: Jiangning Xiaoxue Jiaoyu Yanjiuhui, 1918.Google Scholar
Jiangyin xianzhiJiangyin xianzhi 江陰縣志, compiled Hongzhi period (1488–1505), printed Zhengde period (1506–1521). Held in the National Library of China.Google Scholar
Kunshan xianzhiKunshan xianzhi 崑山縣志 (“Gazetteer of Kunshan County”), Kangxi era (1661–1722); held in the National Library of China.Google Scholar
Shuanglin zhenzhiShuanglin zhenzhi 雙林鎮志, compiled Daoguang period (1821–1850), printed Tongzhi era (1862–1874).Google Scholar
Xincheng zhenzhiXincheng zhenzhi 新塍鎭志. Republican period; held in the Shanghai Library.Google Scholar
Clammer 1993 Clammer, John, . “Religious Pluralism and Chinese Beliefs in Singapore.” In Chinese Beliefs and Practices in Southeast Asia, ed. Cheu, , Hock, Tong, pp. 198–224. Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Pelandok Publications, 1993.Google Scholar
Fan 1990 Fan Shuzhi, 樊树志. Ming dai Jiangnan shizhen tanwei 明清江南市镇探微 (“An investigation of Ming dynasty market towns in Jiangnan”). Shanghai: Fudan Daxue Chubanshe, 1990.Google Scholar
Fan and Luo 1993 Fan Jinmin, 范金民 and Luo Lun, 羅侖. Dongting shangbang 洞庭商帮 (“The Dongting Merchant Group”). Hefei: Jingshan Shuche, 1993.Google Scholar
Fei 1984 Fei Xiaotong, 费孝通. “Xiao chengzhen, da wenti 小城镇，大问题.” Jianghai xuekan 江海学刊 (“Journal of Jianghai academia”) 1 (1984).Google Scholar
Fei 1939 Fei Hsiao-tung, [Fei Xiaotong]. Peasant Life in China: A Field Study of Country Life in the Yangtze Valley. London: Routledge, 1939.Google Scholar
Fu 1956 Fu Yiling, 傅衣凌. Ming Qing shidai shangren ji shangye ziben 明清時代商人及商業資本 (“Ming and Qing era merchants and commercial capital”). Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1956.Google Scholar
Gu 1990 Gu Xijia, 顾希佳. “Taihu liuyu minjian xinyang zhong de shenling tixi 太湖流域民间信仰中的神灵体系” (“The spiritual system of popular beliefs in the Taihu Valley”). Shijie zongjiao yanjiu 世界宗教研究 (“Research on World Religions”) 4 (1990).Google Scholar
Hamashima 2009 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. Jiangnan shehui yu Zhongwai jiaoliu 江南社会与中外交流 (“Jiangnan society and Chinese foreign relations”). Fudan Shixue jikan 復旦史学集刊 (“Fudan Papers on Historical Study”) 3. Shanghai: Fudan Daxue Chubanshe, 2009.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2008a Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. Jinshi Jiangnan nongcun shehui minjian xinyang 近世江南农村社会民间信仰, trans. Zhu, Haibin 朱海濱. Xiamen: Xiamen Daxue Chubanshe 厦門大学出版社, 2008.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2008b Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Mingdai zhonghouqi Jiangnan shidafu de xiangju he chengju: cong ‘minwang’ dao ‘xiangshen’” 明代中後期江南士大夫的鄉居和城居——從「民望」到「鄉紳」 (“Village residence and city residence by Jiangnan shidafu in the mid to late Ming”). Mingdai yanjiu 明代研究 (“Ming studies”) 11. Taipei: Mingdai Yanjiu Xuehui 明代研究學會, 2008.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2008c Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Dong Ya zhuguo de chenghuangshen xinyang” 东亚诸国的城隍信仰 (“Belief in the City-God in the various countries of East Asia”). In Chenghuang xinyang 城隍信仰 － Belief in the City-God, ed. Lin, Weiyi 林纬毅, pp. 13–48. Singapore: Lorong Koo Chye Sheng Hong Temple Association, 2008.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2006 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Qingchu Su Song liangfu de juntian junyi gaige: Jiangnan zouxiaoan chuyi 清初苏松两府的均田均役改革——江南奏销案刍议” (“The reform of the equal fields equal services law in the two prefectures of Suzhou and Songjiang in the early Qing: my opinion on the Jiangnan tax account case”). In Qing shi lunji 清史论集 (“Essays on Qing history”) vol. 2, eds. Chen, Jiexian 陈捷先 et al. Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 2006.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2005 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Mingmo nan Zhili Su Song Chang san fu de juntian junyi fa 明末南直隶苏松常三府的均田均役法” (“The equal fields equal services law in the three prefectures of Southern Zhili, Suzhou Songjiang, and Changzhou, during the late Ming”). In Di shi jie Mingshi guoji xueshu taolunhui lunwenji 第十届明史国际学术讨论会论文集 (“Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Ming History”). (Zhongguo Mingshi Xuehui 中国明史学会). Beijing: Renmin Ribao Chubanshe, 2005.Google Scholar
Hamashima 2001 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. Sōkan shinkō: Kinsei Kōnan nōson shakai to minkan shinkō 総管信仰——近世江南農村社会と民間信仰. Tokyo: Kenbun Shuppan 研文出版, 2001.Google Scholar
Hamashima 1993 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Weirao juntian junyi de shishi 围绕均田均役的实施” (“On the implementation of the equal fields equal services law”). In Riben xuezhe yanjiu Zhongguoshi lunzhu xuanyi 日本学者研究中国史论著选译 (“Selected translations from the research of Japanese scholars on Chinese history”), vol. 6, pp. 192–228. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1993.Google Scholar
Hamashima 1992 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Mingmo Jiangnan xiangshen de jiating jingji: guanyu Nanxunzhen Zhuang shi de jiagui” 明末江南乡绅的家庭经济—关于南浔镇庄氏的家规 (“Household economics of the gentry in late Ming Jiangnan: on the regulations of the Zhuang family of Nanxun town”). Mingshi yanjiu 明史研究 (“Research in Ming History”) (Zhongguo Mingshi Xuehui), vol. 2 (1992), pp. 83–92.Google Scholar
Hamashima 1990 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Guanyu Jiangnan ‘yu’ de ruogan kaocha 关于江南 ‘圩’ 的若干考察” (“Some considerations of the yu of Jiangnan”). Lishi dili 历史地理 (Fudan Daxue Lishi Dili Yanjiusuo 复旦大学历史地理研究所) 7 (1990).Google Scholar
Hamashima 1989a Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Tudi kaifa yu keshang huodong: Mingdai zhongqi Jiangnan dizhu zhi touzi huodong” 土地開發與客商活動—明代中期江南地主之投資活動 (“Land development and the activities of traveling merchants: the investment activities of Jiangnan landlords during the mid-Ming period”). Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Di-er jie guoji Hanxue huiyi lunwenji: Ming Qing jindaishi 中央研究院第二屆國際漢學會議論文集（明清近代史） (1989).Google Scholar
Hamashima 1989b Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. “Minmatsu Kōnan kyōshin no gutaizō: Nanjin Shōshi nitsuite” 明末江南郷紳の具體像—南潯莊氏について (“A concrete example of late Ming Jiangnan Gentry: the Zhuang family of Nanxun”). In Minmatsu Shinshoki no kenkyū 明末清初期の研究, eds. Iwami Hiroshi, 岩見宏 and Taniguchi Kikuo, 谷口規矩雄, pp. 165–223. Kyoto: Kyoto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1989.Google Scholar
Hamashima 1982 Hamashima Atsutoshi, 濱島敦俊. Mindai Kōnan nōson shakai no kenkyū 明代江南農村社会の研究 (“Rural society in Jiangnan during the Ming Dynasty”). Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1982.Google Scholar
Hoshi 1969 Hoshi, Ayao, , The Ming Tribute Grain System, trans. Mark, Elvin. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969. (Translation of Hoshi 1964.)Google Scholar
Hoshi 1964 Hoshi Ayao, 星斌夫. Mindai sōun no kenkyū 明代漕運の研究. Tokyo: Gakujutsu Shinkōkai 学術振興会, 1964. Translated by Mark, Elvin as The Ming Tribute Grain System (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969).Google Scholar
Liang 2001 Liang Fangzhong, 梁方仲. Mingdai liangzhang zhidu 明代糧長制度 (“The liangzhang system in the Ming Dynasty”). Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1957; 2nd ed, 2001.Google Scholar
Oyama 1992 Oyama Masaaki, 小山正明. “Mindai no ryōchō nitsuite: tokuni zenhanki no Kōnan Deruta chitai o chūshin nishite” 明代の粮長について—とくに前半期の江南デルタ地帯を中心にして (“On the liangzhang of the Ming Dynasty: focusing on the Jiangnan Delta region during the first half of the period”). Reprinted in Oyama, Min Shin shakai keizaishi kenkyū 明清社会経済史研究 (“Research in Ming and Qing Socioeconomic History”), part I.8. Tokyo University Press, 1992. (Originally published 1969.)Google Scholar
Skinner 1976 Skinner, G. William, . “Mobility Strategies in Late Imperial China: a Regional-Systems Analysis.” In Regional Analysis, vol. 1, ed. Carol, A. Smith. New York: Academic Press, 1976, pp. 327–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber 1976 Weber, Max, . Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie, Kapitel IX. Tübingen: Mohr, 1976.Google Scholar
Weber 1958 Weber, Max, . The City, trans. Don, Martindale and Gertrud, Neuwirth. New York: Free Press, 1958.Google Scholar
Zhejiangsheng 1986 Zhejiangsheng Minsu Xuehui, 浙江省民俗学会, comp. Zhejiang fengsu jianzhi 浙江风俗简志 (“A brief survey of Zhejiang customs”). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Renmin Chubanshe, 1986.Google Scholar
Zhu 2008 Zhu Haibin, 朱海濱. Jisi zhengce yu minjian xinyang bianqian 祭祀政策与民间信仰变迁 (“Ritual policy and changes in popular belief”). Shanghai: Fudan Daxue Chubanshe, 2008.Google Scholar