¹ Global Network of Civil Society Organisations for Disaster Reduction (2018) <http://www.gndr.org/programmes/advocacy/365-disasters/more-than-365-disasters-blogs/item/1519-unisdr-needs-a-better-definition-of-vulnerability.html>.

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⁸ World Bank, ‘Tackling Inequality Vital to Ending Extreme Poverty by 2030’ <http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2016/10/02/tackling-inequality-vital-to-end-extreme-poverty-by-2030>.

⁹ Sivakumaran, S, ‘Armed Conflict-Related Detention of Particularly Vulnerable Persons: Challenges and Possibilities’ (2018) 94 International Law Studies 39Google Scholar.

¹⁰ See for example Bühlmann, F, ‘Trajectories of Vulnerability: A Sequence-Analytical Approach’ in Tillmann, R, Voorpostel, M and Farago, P (eds), Social Dynamics in Swiss Society. Life Course Research and Social Policies, vol 9 (Springer 2018)Google Scholar.

¹¹ S Sengupta and R Minder, ‘António Guterres Pledges to Help Vulnerable as Secretary General’ New York Times (6 October 2016).

¹² A Cortina and J Conill, ‘Ethics of Vulnerability’ in Masferrer and García-Sánchez (n 2) 45.

¹³ UN Doc A/71/10, UNYBILC (2016) vol II, Pt Two, para 48.

¹⁴ Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-Eighth Session Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-First Session, Supp No 10, UN Doc A/61/10, para 257.

¹⁵ ILC, Sixty-Third Session, UN Doc A/66/10, para 285 at 253.

¹⁶ UNGA Res 71/141 of 13 December 2016 and UNGA Res 73/209 of 20 December 2018 which reminds States of the ILC's recommendation for a convention and the importance of State comments on the draft Articles.

¹⁷ E Valencia-Ospina, Eighth Report on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters, UN Doc A/CN.4/697, paras 412–413; E Valencia-Ospina, Preliminary Report on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters, UN Doc A/CN.4/598 (5 May 2008) para 60; E Valencia-Ospina, Fourth Report on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters, A/CN.4/643, para 25, citing UK and Russian views (A/C.6/65SR.24 and A/C.6/65SR.23 respectively).

¹⁸ Kritsiotis, D, ‘Imagining the International Community’ (2002) 13(1) EJIL 961CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁰ The 1986 Convention on Assistance in the case of a Nuclear Accident and the 1998 Tampere Convention. See the Special Rapporteur's Preliminary Report, on the pot pourri of relevant multilateral and bilateral agreements, material drafted by expert bodies such as the Red Cross, internal UN rules, regulations and resolutions (notably UNGA Res 46/182 of 1991) and regional arrangements. See also UN General Assembly resolutions and political declarations. Preliminary Report, A/CN.4/598 (n 17) paras 33–35, 37 and ILC Report Fifty-Eighth Session, A/61/10 Annex C (n 14) paras 12–15. Key soft law instruments include the 1994 Mohonk Criteria for Humanitarian Assistance in Complex Emergences; the 2007 Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance (the IFRC/IDRL Guidelines); the San Remo Principles (infra n 95); Oslo Guidelines on the Use of Foreign Military and Defence Assets in Disaster Relief (2007); Stockholm Principles and Good Practice of Humanitarian Donorship (2003) and the Sphere Project, Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response.

²¹ Despite the establishment in 1927 of the International Relief Union and treaty attempts in 1984, systematization was unachievable, A/61/10 Annex C, (n 14) paras 18–23; KN Bookmiller, ‘Closing “the Yawning Gap”? International Disaster Response Law at Fifteen’ in Breau and Samuel (n 4) 51. Fidler, D ‘Disaster Relief and Governance after the Indian Ocean Tsunami: What Role for International Law?’ (2005) 6 MJIL 458Google Scholar.

²² Kälin, W, ‘The Human Rights Dimension of Natural or Human-made Disasters’ (2012) 55 GermYbkIntlL 119Google Scholar.

²³ Bookmiller (n 21) 46.

²⁴ See IFRC, International Disaster Response Laws (IDRL): Project Report 2002–2003 (2–6 December 2003); ILC Report, Fifty-Eighth Session A/61/10, Annex C (n 14) para 8, 464–5; and the Analytical Guide to the Work of the International Law Commission (16 June 2016) <http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/6_3.shtml>.

²⁵ Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (A/CONF.206/6); Handmer, J, Loh, E and Choong, W, ‘Using Law to Reduce Vulnerability to Natural Disasters’ (2007) 14 Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law and Policy 13Google Scholar.

²⁶ Valencia-Ospina, Preliminary Report, A/CN.4/598 (n 17) paras 12, 26, 51, 62.

²⁷ OHCHR, Frequently Asked Questions on a Human Rights-Based Approach to Development Cooperation 15 (2006) <http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FAQen.pdf>.

²⁸ Charlesworth, H, ‘International Law: A Discipline of Crisis’ (2002) 65(3) MLR 377CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁹ Draft Art 2 Commentary para 7, A/71/10 (n 13) 5.

³⁰ Aguirre, BE, ‘Dialectics of Vulnerability and Resilience’ (2007) 14 Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law and Policy 39Google Scholar.

³¹ Preliminary Report, A/CN.4/598 (n 17) para 12.

³² Draft Article 5 Commentary para 5, A/71/10 (n 13) 13.

³³ ibid 13–14.

³⁴ UNICEF, Human Rights-Based Approach to Programming <https://www.unicef.org/policyanalysis/rights/>.

³⁵ ILC Report Fifty-Eighth Session A/61/10 Annex C, (n 14) para 34, 478–80 ‘[h]uman suffering is to be addressed wherever it exists, and the dignity and rights of all victims should be respected and protected’.

³⁶ Whereby provision of humanitarian assistance is based on needs assessment, A/61/10 Annex C (n 14) para 34, 478–80.

³⁷ Draft art 6 Commentary para 5, A/71/10 (n 13). See also, UN Doc A/66/10 (n 15) 254.

³⁸ Draft art 6 Commentary para 5, A/71/10 (n 13).

³⁹ 2007 Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance (the IFRC/IDRL Guidelines) Article 4, para 3(a).

⁴⁰ See art II para 3 of the Institute of International Law, Resolution on Humanitarian Assistance (2 September 2003) [hereinafter Bruges Resolution].

⁴¹ UNGA Res 69/135 of 12 December 2014, para 32.

⁴² Draft art 5 Commentary para 8, A/71/10 (n 13).

⁴³ Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters A/CONF.206/6 and Corr.1, chap. I, resolution 2, para 13(d).

⁴⁴ Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan, on 18 March 2015, <https://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf>. See broadly para 16 which stresses disaster prevention and reduction via strategies involving economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures.

⁴⁵ See also J Fowler, ‘Empower Women to Reduce Disaster Risk’ (8 March 2017) <https://www.unisdr.org/archive/52264>.

⁴⁶ For an account of this terrain, Nicoletti, B, ‘The Prevention of Natural and Man-Made Disasters: What Duties for States?’ in de Guttry, A, Gestri, M and Venturini, G (eds), International Disaster Response Law (TMC Asser 2012) 177CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁷ Draft Art 9 Commentary, A/71/10 (n 13) para 3.

⁴⁸ Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction in 2013, fourth session, Geneva (19–23 May 2013).

⁴⁹ Draft Art 9 Commentary, paras 5 and 6, A/71/10 (n 13).

⁵⁰ ibid para 17.

⁵¹ ibid para 3.

⁵² Sendai Framework (n 44) para 19(a).

⁵³ ‘In the application of the present draft articles, States shall, as appropriate, cooperate among themselves, with the United Nations, with the components of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and with other assisting actors.’

⁵⁴ Allan and O'Donnell (n 4); and O'Donnell, T and Allan, C, ‘Identifying Solidarity: the ILC project on the protection of persons in disasters and human rights’ (2016) 49(1) GeoWashIntlLRev 53Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Such as humanitarian assistance, coordination of international relief actions and communications, and making available relief personnel, equipment and goods, and scientific, medical and technical resources. See also Draft Art 16 regarding an affected State's duties to protect relief personnel, equipment and goods.

⁵⁶ For example, insufficient/corrupt building practices (see the examples of earthquakes in Turkey and China, notably in Szechuan in 2008) lax health and safety processes and safeguards (Oneryildiz v Turkey (2005) 41 EHRR 20); poor infrastructure, and poorly-resourced health services.

⁵⁷ Franck, T, The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (Oxford University Press 1990)Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ H Charlesworth (n 28).

⁵⁹ D Nix-Stevenson, ‘Human Response to Natural Disasters’ (2013) July–September SAGE Open 1.1.

⁶⁰ Elliott, JR et al. , ‘Himalayan Megathrust Geometry and Relation to Topography Revealed by the Gorkha Earthquake’ (2016) 9 Nature Geoscience 174CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶² ‘Natural Disasters in Indonesia’ <https://www.indonesia-investments.com/business/risks/natural-disasters/item243?>; ‘Indonesia Tsunami Relief Efforts Hit by Infrastructure Problems’ Financial Times (30 September 2018); ‘A Tsunami Strikes a Poor Part of Indonesia’ The Economist (30 September 2018).

⁶³ R Drayton, ‘The Wealth of the West was Built on Africa's Exploitation’ The Guardian (20 August 2005).

⁶⁴ J Purdy, ‘The Unequal Distribution of Catastrophe in North Carolina’ The New Yorker (18 September 2018).

⁶⁵ UNCESCR, Concluding Observations on the Third Periodic Report of Japan, E/C.12/JPN/CO/3, para 24.

⁶⁶ For example see the preamble to the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which notes that parties should, when taking action to address climate change, respect, promote and consider their respective obligations on human rights, the right to health, the rights of indigenous peoples, local communities, migrants, children, persons with disabilities and people in vulnerable situations.

⁶⁷ (including discrimination based on political opinion) ibid para 18.

⁶⁸ UN Doc A/CN.4/SR.3054, 19, UN Doc A/65/10, para 312. See art II(3) of the Bruges Resolution (n 40).

⁶⁹ E/C.12/1997/8 para 13. See also art 23 of Geneva Convention IV 1949 which mandates that all parties allow ‘free passage of all consignments of essential foodstuffs, clothing and tonics intended for children under fifteen, expectant mothers and maternity cases’.

⁷⁰ 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child arts 6, 24(2) and 27.

⁷¹ Art 11 of the 2006 International Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities obliges States, in consonance with their existing international obligations, to ensure the protection and safety of such persons in risky situations, including natural disasters.

⁷² ‘UN Offers Help to US in Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina's Devastation’ <https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/09/151082-un-offers-help-us-aftermath-hurricane-katrinas-devastation>.

⁷³ ILC Report, Fifty-eighth Session, UN Doc A/61/10 (n 14).

⁷⁴ Valencia-Ospina, Preliminary Report (n 17) para 14.

⁷⁵ E Valencia-Ospina, Second Report on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters UN Doc A/CN.4/615, para 50.

⁷⁶ Draft Art 2 Commentary, A/71/10 (n 13) para 6

⁷⁷ ‘[i]f a Nation is suffering from famine, all those who have provisions to spare should assist it in its need, without, however, exposing themselves to scarcity … To give assistance in such dire straits is so instinctive an act of humanity that hardly any civilized Nation is to be found which would absolutely refuse to do so … Whatever be the calamity affecting a Nation, the same help is due to it.’ E de Vattel, Vol. III The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law Applied to the Conduct and to the Affairs of Nations and of Sovereigns (Charles G Fenwick trans, Carnegie Inst. of Wash. 1916) (1758) 115.

⁷⁸ ‘[W]hen the occasion arises, every Nation should give its aid to further the advancement of other Nations and save them from disaster and ruin, so far as it can do so without running too great a risk.’ Vattel ibid; see also ILC, Fifty-Eighth Session, Annex C, UN Doc A/61/10, (n 14) para 18, 472.

⁷⁹ See Bookmiller (n 21) 46, 48; and Walker, P and Maxwell, DG, Shaping the Humanitarian World (Routledge 2008)Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Fatemi, F et al. , ‘Social Vulnerability Indicators in Disasters: Findings from a Systematic Review’ (2017) 22 International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸² Draft Art 7, A/71/10 (n 13).

⁸³ Draft Art 13(2), A/71/10 (n 13).

⁸⁴ Draft Art 1 Commentary, para 3, A/71/10 (n 13).

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⁹⁴ Geneva Convention IV art 63.

⁹⁵ International Institute of Humanitarian Law, ‘Guiding Principles on the Right to Humanitarian Assistance’ (1993) 33 (297) IRRC 521Google Scholar,

⁹⁶ See also Principle 6 which notes that in the event of refusal of either offers of assistance, or access to the victims when humanitarian access is agreed upon, States and organizations concerned may ‘undertake all necessary steps to ensure such access’ according to humanitarian and human rights principles.

⁹⁷ Allan, C and O'Donnell, T, ‘A Call to Alms?: Natural Disasters, R2P, Duties of Cooperation and Uncharted Consequences’ (2012) 17(3) JC&SL 337Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ 1949 Geneva Conventions Common arts 2 and 3 and Additional Protocols I and II.

⁹⁹ M Moseley, ‘Convergent Catastrophe: Past Patterns and Future Implications of Collateral Natural Disasters in the Andes’ in Hoffman and Oliver-Smith (n 19) 59.

¹⁰⁰ Allan, C and O'Donnell, T, ‘An Offer You Cannot Refuse? Natural Disasters, the Politics of Aid Refusal and Potential Legal Implications’ (2013) 5(1) Amsterdam Law Forum 36Google Scholar.

¹⁰¹ International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) art 6; see also ‘Natural Disaster: Mudslide – Positive Obligations – arts 2, 13 and art.1 of Protocol 1’ (2008) 4 EHRLR 541Google Scholar; Stallworthy, M, ‘Human Rights Challenges and Adequacy of State Responses to Natural Disaster’ (2009) 11(2) EnvLRev 123Google Scholar; and Ford, S ‘Is the Failure to Respond Appropriately to a Natural Disaster a Crime Against Humanity? The Responsibility to Protect and Individual Criminal Responsibility in the Aftermath of Cyclone Nargis’ (2010) 38 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 227Google Scholar.

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¹⁰³ B Oskin, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011: Facts and Information, LiveScience.com (7 May 2015) <http://www.livescience.com/39110-japan-2011-earthquake-tsunami-facts.html>.

¹⁰⁴ Aginam, O, ‘From Isolationism to Mutual Vulnerability and Back: International Law and Unfair Distribution of Global Disease Burdens’ (2001) 95 AmSoc'yIntlLProc 58Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Fineman, M, ‘Vulnerability and Inevitable Inequality’ (2017) 4 Oslo Law Review 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar; MacIntyre, A, Dependent Rational Animals (Bloomsbury 2009)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ M Crock, ‘The Protection of Vulnerable Groups’ in Breau and Samuel (n 4) 383, 383–7.

¹⁰⁷ ‘Massive Earthquake Strikes Chile’ <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8540289.stm>.

¹⁰⁸ Report on the 2010 Chilean Earthquake and Tsunami Response by the American Red Cross Multidisciplinary Team <https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1053/>.

¹⁰⁹ Roughly 20 per cent of the country's population, <https://www.thebalance.com/haiti-earthquake-facts-damage-effects-on-economy-3305660>.

¹¹⁰ <https://borgenproject.org/10-facts-haiti-earthquake/>. See also Sewordor, E et al. , ‘Challenges to Mobilising Resources for Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction: Perspectives of the Haitian Diaspora’ (2019) 43(2) Disasters 336, 338CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

¹¹¹ <http://www.europeanchoralassociation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/Dateien_Europa_Cantat/Membership/Human_Development_Index_2010.pdf>.

¹¹² Borgen Project (n 110).

¹¹³ <https://www.thebalance.com/haiti-earthquake-facts-damage-effects-on-economy-3305660>.

¹¹⁴ ‘Impact of the 12 January Earthquake’ <https://www.dec.org.uk/articles/haiti-earthquake-facts-and-figures>.

¹¹⁵ By July 2011 5,899 had died as a result of the outbreak, and 216,000 were infected, <https://www.dec.org.uk/articles/haiti-earthquake-facts-and-figures>.

¹¹⁶ Piarroux, R et al. , ‘Understanding the Cholera Epidemic, Haiti’ (2011) 17(7) Emerg Infect Dis. 1161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. ‘Secretary-General Apologizes for United Nations Role in Haiti Cholera Epidemic, Urges International Funding of New Response to Disease’ <https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sgsm18323.doc.htm>. A Sidder, ‘How Cholera Spread So Quickly through Haiti’ National Geographic (18 August 2016).

¹¹⁷ Butterbaugh, L, ‘Why Did Katrina Hit Women So Hard?’ (2005) 35(9/10) Off Our Backs 17Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Nix-Stevenson (n 59) 1.

¹¹⁹ Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee on the Second and Third U.S. Reports to the Committee (2006) UN Doc CCPR/C/USA/CO/3 (2006). See also Rivera, J and Miller, DS, ‘Continually Neglected: Situating Natural Disasters in the African American Experience’ (2007) 37(4) Journal of Black Studies 502CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁰ For discussion on the engagement of local populations post-disaster see Ali (n 85) 87–95, 265–70 and 273–8.

¹²¹ See arts 6 and 26 of the ICCPR. See also Ali (n 85) 270–2.

¹²² See generally Allan and O'Donnell (n 4), (n 97) and (n 100).

¹²³ See Valencia-Ospina, Second Report, A/CN.4/615 (n 75) para 49.

¹²⁴ Valencia-Ospina, Eighth Report (n 17) para 69; Draft Art 3's Commentary, A/71/10 (n 13) para 5.

¹²⁵ Draft Art 1 Commentary, A/71/10 (n 13) para 2 and Valencia-Ospina, Eighth Report (n 17) para 88. Some causes are accidental, some not; see Davis, M, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (Verso 2001) 279Google Scholar.

¹²⁶ ‘such a distinction could be artificial and difficult to sustain in practice in view of the complex interaction of different causes leading to disasters’ Valencia-Ospina, Eighth Report (n 17) para 47, and Draft Art 3 Commentary, A/71/10 (n 13) para 4

¹²⁷ ‘If the ‘root causes’ discourse that has emerged within human rights circles reveals some aspects of the explanation for human rights abuse, … it can also conceal other aspects. In particular, … flaws have been illuminated at the level of law, procedure and policy. Yet these flaws have been made to seem like simple misunderstandings or oversights, deficiencies of leadership or accountability, or quirks of local history or culture. The idea that they may themselves be explicable with reference to some wider systemic context has been mostly removed from view. For all the insistence that human rights abuses and the vulnerabilities which expose people to them are man-made disasters, the drift of our analysis is that natural disaster is the model on which the explanatory effort is imaginatively constructed.’ Marks (n 6).

¹²⁸ A Sen, The Idea of Justice (Penguin 2009).

¹²⁹ Nussbaum, MC, Creating Capabilities (Belknap Press 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹³² See generally M Davis (n 125) 279–310 (for an excellent analysis of the production of vulnerability and underdevelopment).

¹³³ I Macdonald, ‘France's Debt of Dishonour to Haiti’ The Guardian (16 August 2010).

¹³⁴ <https://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/France-Clarifies-It-Wont-Repay-Haitis-Independence-Debt-20150511-0032.html>. See also politically motivated US involvement in Haiti and its relationship to the latter's condition in 2010 which may suggest its own obligation of reparations. B Quigley, ‘Why the US Owes Haiti Billions’ <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/bill-quigley/why-the-us-owes-haiti-bil_b_426260.html>.

¹³⁵ Lyster (n 130) 106.

¹³⁶ A fund to which France contributed – <http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/05/28/world-bank-announces-total-cancellation-of-haitis-debt>.

¹³⁷ ‘Poverty is defined by historical processes that deprive people of access to resources while vulnerability is signified by historical processes that deprive people of the means of coping with hazard without incurring damaging losses that leave them physically weak, economically impoverished, socially dependent, humiliated and psychologically harmed’, Bankoff, G ‘Rendering the World Unsafe: ‘Vulnerability’ as Western Discourse’ (2001) 25(1) Disasters 19, 25 citing Chambers (1989) 1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Vulnerability has since been helpfully categorized into six distinctive types: economic; technological; residual (lack of modernization); delinquent (corruption, negligence); newly generated and total (general precarity) Wisner, B and Alexander, D, ‘Vulnerability’ in Penuel, K, Statler, M and Hagen, R (eds), Encyclopedia of Crisis Management (Sage 2013) 980–3Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Drayton, R, The Caribbean and the Making of the Modern World (Penguin 2016)Google Scholar.

¹³⁹ ‘In the application of the present draft articles, States shall, as appropriate, cooperate among themselves, with the United Nations, with the components of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and with other assisting actors.’

¹⁴⁰ Johnson, R, ‘Periods of Peril: Windows of Vulnerability and Other Myths’ (1983) 61(4) Foreign Affairs 950CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴¹ Wisner (n 1).

¹⁴² Gibb (n 5) 328 drawing on Hewitt, ‘The Idea of Calamity in a Technocratic Age’ in Hewitt, K (ed), Interpretations of Calamity (Allen and Unwin 1983)Google Scholar.

¹⁴³ Gibb (n 5) 328 drawing on, among others, Giddens, A, ‘Risk and Responsibility’ (1999) 62(1) MLR 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Forsyth, T, Critical Political Ecology (Routledge 2003)Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁴ Gibb (n 5) 330 drawing on Pelling, M, ‘Natural Disasters?’ in Castree, N and Braun, B (eds), Social Nature (Blackwell 2001)Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁵ See G Bankoff, ‘The Tale of the Three Little Pigs: Taking Another Look at Vulnerability in the Light of the Indian Ocean Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina’ <http://understandingkatrina.ssrc.org/Bankoff/>; and Gibb (n 5) 330, drawing on N Smith, ‘There's No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster, Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences’ (Social Science Research Council: 2006).

¹⁴⁶ Poorly designed and constructed buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental management.

¹⁴⁷ 2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction <https://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf>.

¹⁴⁸ UNGA Res 69/284.

¹⁴⁹ Report of the Open-ended Intergovernmental Expert Working Group on Indicators and Terminology Relating to Disaster Risk Reduction (2016) A/71/644.

¹⁵⁰ ‘The conditions determined by physical, economic, social and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impacts of a hazard.’ This repeated the 2005–2015 Hyogo Framework for Action definition (n 25).

¹⁵¹ Wisner (n 1).

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¹⁵⁵ Gibb (n 5) 327; see also K O'Brien et al., ‘Why Different Interpretations of Vulnerability Matter in Climate Change Discourses’ Climate Policy 7(1) (2007) 73–88. See also Wisner et al. (n 153).

¹⁵⁶ See for example the ‘spaces of vulnerability’ model, Gibb (n 5) 329, citing Watts, M and Bohle, H, ‘Hunger, Famine and the Space of Vulnerability’ (1993) 30(2) GeoJournal 117CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Wisner et al. (n 153) and the pressure and release model.

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¹⁶⁴ Wisner et al. (n 153) 11.

¹⁶⁵ ibid.

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¹⁶⁹ Gibb (n 5) 331–2, referencing Forsyth (n 143).

¹⁷⁰ Bankoff (n 137) discussed extensively below.

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¹⁷⁵ Bankoff, ibid, 27–9, citing with approval the work of Hewitt, 167.

¹⁷⁶ Bankoff, ibid, 28.

¹⁷⁷ Gibb (n 5) 332 referencing Gupta, A and Sharma, A, ‘Globalization and Postcolonial States’ (2006) 47(2) Current Anthropology 277CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁸² ibid 30.

¹⁸³ ibid, 30 citing Hoffman and Oliver-Smith (n 19) 6, 20.

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¹⁸⁹ ibid.

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¹⁹⁷ Gibb (n 5) 333.

¹⁹⁸ ibid 330–1, drawing on the work of Adger, WN, Eakin, H and Winkels, A, ‘Nested and Teleconnected Vulnerabilities to Environmental Change’ (2009) 7(3) Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 150CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁰⁴ Villalpando (n 166) 400–1.

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