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² United States Mission to UNESCO ‘Explanation of Vote of the United States on the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions: Statement delivered by Louise V Oliver, US Ambassador to UNESCO’ (Paris 20 Oct 2005).

³ UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions CLT-2005/Convention Diversité-Cult Rev (20 Oct 2005).

⁴ UNESCO Convention preamble [18].

⁵ Alan Riding ‘U.S. all but alone in opposing Unesco cultural pact’ International Herald Tribune (20 Oct 2005).

⁶ UNESCO Convention Art 29.1.

⁷ See <http://www.unesco.org/general/eng/about/members.shtml> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

⁸ <http://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm> (accessed 27 Mar 2006). Liechtenstein and Singapore are WTO Members but not UNESCO Member States. WTO Membership is not restricted to states: Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (Marrakesh Agreement) Arts XI:1, XII:1. The following WTO Members are not UNESCO Member States or Associate Members: the European Communities, Hong Kong, and Chinese Taipei. Macau is a WTO Member and a UNESCO Associate Member.

⁹ See Bernier, Ivan and Fabri, Hélène RuizÉvaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 22–3.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [1].

¹¹ For an overview of the relevant issues see Footer, Mary and Graber, Christoph Beat ‘Trade Liberalization and Cultural Policy’ (2000) 3 Journal of International Economic Law 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁶ <http:/incp-/ripc.org/about/index_e.shtml> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

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²⁰ <http://www.incd.net/about.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

²¹ International Network for Cultural Diversity, Advancing Cultural Diversity Globally: The Role of Civil Society Movements—Report from the Fourth Annual Conference of the International Network for Cultural Diversity in partnership with Culturelink Network/IMO (Opatija 13–15 10 2003) 17.Google Scholar

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²³ UNESCO Preliminary study on the technical and legal aspects relating to the desirability of a standard-setting instrument on cultural diversity 166 EX/28 (12 03 2003) summary.Google Scholar

²⁴ ibid [3]–[10], annex.

²⁵ UNESCO Decisions adopted by the Executive Board at its 166th Session 166 EX/Decisions (14 05 2003) 11.Google Scholar

²⁶ General Conference,UNESCO Resolution 34 adopted at the 32nd Session(29 Sept 2003–17 Oct 2003) [1].Google Scholar

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²⁸ The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 17–20 Dec 2003, 30 Mar–3 Apr 2004, and 28–31 May 2004.

²⁹ UNESCO Report of the Third Meeting of Experts (Category VI) on the Preliminary Draft of the Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2004/603/5 (23 June 2004).

³⁰ The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 20–24 Sept 2004, 31 Jan–11 Feb 2005, and 25 May–3 June 2005.

³¹ UNESCO First Session of the Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts on the Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Report by the Secretariat CLT-2004/CONF.201/9 (Nov 2004) [2].Google Scholar

³² UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Text Revised by the Drafting Committee, 14–17 Dec 2004 CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/6 (23 Dec 2004) [7]. See also Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004).

³³ Third Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts, UNESCO Recommendation (3 June 2005) [2], [5].

³⁴ UNESCO Convention Art 1(g).

³⁵ ibid Art 3.

³⁶ ibid Art 4.3.

³⁷ ibid Art 4.2.

³⁸ See eg Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24–5. See also Bonnie Richardson ‘Hollywood's Vision of a Clear, Predictable Trade Framework Consistent with Cultural Diversity’ in Christoph Beat Graber et al (eds) Free Trade versus Cultural Diversity: WTO Negotiations in the Field of Audiovisual Services (2004) 111, 115–16.

³⁹ UNESCO Convention Art 2.1.

⁴⁰ ibid Art 2.2.

⁴¹ ibid Art 2.8.

⁴² ibid Art 6.1.

⁴³ ibid Art 6.2(d).

⁴⁴ ibid Art 6.2(b).

⁴⁵ See the concerns raised by WTO Members in Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24.

⁴⁶ UNESCO Convention Art 8.1.

⁴⁷ ibid Art 8.2.

⁴⁸ ibid Art 12(e).

⁴⁹ ibid Art 25.1

⁵⁰ ibid Art 25.2

⁵¹ ibid Art 25.3

⁵² See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [8]–[9].

⁵³ UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Preliminary Report of the Director-General CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/1 (July 2004) Art 24.

⁵⁴ ibid Art 19 (option B).

⁵⁵ ibid [13]; General Council, WTO Annual Report 2004 WT/GC/86 (12 Jan 2005) 20; General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [64]–[85].

⁵⁶ Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23; General Conference, UNESCO Preliminary Report by the Director-General Setting out the Situation to be Regulated and the Possible Scope of the Regulating Action Proposed, Accompanied by the Preliminary Draft of a Convention on the Protection and of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions 33 C/23 (4 Aug 2005) [17].

⁵⁷ General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [69].

⁵⁸ See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [4].

⁵⁹ See eg Acheson, Keith and Maule, Christopher ‘Convention on Cultural Diversity’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 245, 251;CrossRefGoogle ScholarGilbert, Gagné ‘Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce’ in Gagné, Gilbert (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 61.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 October 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [65].

⁶¹ Drafting Committee, UNESCOPreliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23.Google Scholar

⁶² Council for Trade in Services, WTO Report of the Meeting Held on 23 Sept 2004: Note by the Secretariat S/C/M/74 (10 Nov 2004) [74].

⁶³ WTO Information Note from the Director-General, WTO Public Symposium— ‘WTO After 10 Years: Global Problems and Multilateral Solutions’, 20 to 22 April 2005 WT/INF/87 (13 Apr 2005) 5.

⁶⁴ GATS Art XIX:2.

⁶⁵ Acheson, Keith and Maule, Christopher ‘Convention on Cultural Diversity’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Bernier, Ivan and Fabri, Hélène RuizÉvaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 42;Google ScholarGagné, Gilbert ‘Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce’ in Gagné, Gilbert (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 60;Google ScholarTrebilcock, Michael and Howse, RobertThe Regulation of International Trade (3rd ednRoutledge Oxford 2005) 640.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ See Iapadre, Lelio ‘Comment’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 267, 269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁷ GATS Art XIX:1; Marrakesh Agreement, preamble.

⁶⁸ Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 25.

⁶⁹ ibid 26.

⁷⁰ Panel Report US—Certain EC Products, [6.13].

⁷¹ ibid [2.21]–[2.25], [7.1(a)].

⁷² Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarOn overlaps between WTO disputes and international disputes in other fora, see Paulwelyn, Joost ‘Adding Sweeteners to Softwood Lumber: the WTO–NAFTA “Spaghetti Bowl” is cooking’ (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁴ DSU Art 3.7.

⁷⁵ See also Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 317–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁶ A comparable situation may arise under multilateral environmental agreements. See eg Committee on Trade and Environment, WTO Report (1996) of the Committee on Trade and Environment WT/CTE/1 (12 Nov 1996) [178].

⁷⁷ Emphasis added.

⁷⁸ DSU Arts 3.4, 3.6.

⁷⁹ ibid Art 3.2.

⁸⁰ Robert, Howse ‘The Most Dangerous Branch? WTO Appellate Body Jurisprudence on the Nature and Limits of the Judicial Power’ in Cottier, Thomas and Mavroidis, Petros (eds) The Role of the Judge in International Trade Regulation: Experience and Lessons for the WTO vol 4 (The University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor 2003) 11, 15.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Appellate Body Report Chile—Alcoholic Beverages, [79].

⁸² Appellate Body Report US—Gasoline, 16–17.

⁸³ ibid 17.

⁸⁴ See eg Appellate Body Report EC—Computer Equipment, ‘84’; Appellate Body Report EC—Sardines, [200]; Appellate Body Report India—Patents (US), [46]; Appellate Body Report Japan—Alcoholic Beverages II, 10; Appellate Body Report US—Carbon Steel, [61]; Appellate Body Report EC–Chicken Cuts, [176]

⁸⁵ Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [129]–[32]. See also Appellate Body Report EC— Tariff Preferences, [163]; leaked interim panel report, European Communities—Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.92] at <http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/leaked_wto_report_us_misle_ 28022006.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

⁸⁶ Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [158]. See also Appellate Body Report US—FSC, [166]; Appellate Body Report Brazil—Desiccated Coconut, 15; Appellate Body Report Canada— Patent Term, [71].

⁸⁷ See Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [130]; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep 16, [53].

⁸⁸ See Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 257–8, 261;CrossRefGoogle ScholarLennard, Michael ‘Navigating by the Stars: Interpreting the WTO Agreements’ (2002) 5(1) Journal of International Economic Law 17, 35–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarBut see Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁹ See leaked interim panel report, European Communities—Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.68]–[7.71] at <http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/leaked_wto_report_us_misle_28022006.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

⁹⁰ See DSU Arts 1.1, 11, 17.6, 19.1. See also Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1107;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarBut see Trachtman, Joel ‘Review of Joost Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of International Law’ (2004) 98 American Journal of International Law 855, 857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁹² Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 25–40, 465, 466, 469;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPauwelyn, Joost ‘The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization’ (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 135, 138.Google ScholarSee also Kuijper, Pieter Jan ‘The Law of GATT as a Special Field of International Law’ (1994) Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 227;Google ScholarBartels, Lorand ‘Applicable Law in WTO Dispute Settlement Proceedings’ (2001) 35(3) Journal of World Trade 499, 518; Panel Report Korea—Procurement, [7.96].CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁹⁴ ‘[T]he method of literal interpretation is relatively safe, and … its results are more easily accepted than results reached by other interpretative tools’: Ehlermann, Claus-Dieter ‘Six Years on the Bench of the “World Trade Court”: Some Personal Experiences as Member of the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization’ (2002) 36(4) Journal of World Trade 605, 617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarOn the gradual evolution of the Appellate Body's approach, see Ortino, Federico ‘Treaty Interpretation and the WTO Appellate Body’ in US–Gambling, A Critique’ (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹⁵ Appellate Body Report US—Underwear, 15.

⁹⁶ ibid. See also Appellate Body Report US—Wool Shirts and Blouses, 16.

⁹⁷ Appellate Body Report EC—Hormones, [177].

⁹⁸ Appellate Body Report US—Carbon Steel, [90].

⁹⁹ Appellate Body Report Brazil—Aircraft, [139]. See also Appellate Body Report EC— Bananas III, [136], quoting the panel with approval.

¹⁰⁰ Appellate Body Report Mexico—Taxes on Soft Drinks, [69].

¹⁰¹ ibid [79].

¹⁰² See eg Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰³ Pauwelyn, Joost ‘The Role of Public International Law in the WTO: How Far Can We Go?’ (2001) 95 American Journal of International Law 535, 551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarSee also Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁴ See eg UNESCO Preliminary Report of the Director-General Containing Two Preliminary Drafts of a Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2005/CONF.203/6 (3 Mar 2005) Appendix 1 (composite text), Art 19 (option B) (emphasis added).

¹⁰⁵ Emphasis added.

¹⁰⁶ See VCLT, Art 30(4).