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8 Though note the dangers associated with using that term: Hyde v Agar; Worsley v Australian Rugby Football Union Ltd (1998) 45 NSWLR 487; [1998] NSWSC 451 on appeal (2000) 201 CLR552, 570ff(HCA).Google Scholar

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13 McLachlan, above n 9 at 11.Google Scholar

14 Cf Pavlovich v Superior Court 109 Cal Rptr 2d 909, 916 (CalApp 2001).Google Scholar

15 In this article, which looks at common law jurisdictions generally, the term ‘claimant’ is used rather than ‘plaintiff’.Google Scholar

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17 ‘Developments-Law of Cyberspace’ (1999) 112 Harvard L Rev 1574, 1700.Google Scholar

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22 eg dissemination of racist material, email stalking, dissemination of pornographic material, online gambling, computer fraud, and abuse.Google Scholar

23 eg public, taxation, competition, banking, securities, migration, and family law.Google Scholar

24 Hence it does not deal with the wrongs of breach of contract (or other contractual claims), breach of trust and breach of fiduciary duty.Google Scholar

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26 Bochan v LaFontaine 68 F Supp 2d 692 (EDVa 1999); MR Osinski ‘Personal jurisdiction and internet torts’ 80 U Detroit Mercy L Rev 249 (2003); Hamdani above n 19.Google Scholar

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29 eg placing indiscreet photos on a website.Google Scholar

30 ie unauthorized use of a person's name or likeness or other personal information.Google Scholar

31 Programmers prefer to use the term ‘cracking’ instead.Google Scholar

32 eg ‘email bombing’ (defendant repeatedly sends an email to a particular victim's email address in order to consume system resources); ‘email spamming’ (defendant sends bulk junk emails to multiple victims); ‘email spoofing’ (ie defendant alters his email account's identity and engages in bombing or spamming); ‘flaming’ (electronic hate mail).Google Scholar

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36 Particularly in the past decade.Google Scholar

37 Though attempts are being made at international coordination of internet governance issues, eg International Chamber of Commerce Issues Paper on Internet Governance (ICC Paris 2004).Google Scholar

38 Dow Jones & Co Inc v Gutnick (2003) 210 CLR 575, 597 [14] (HCA) (evidence of Dr Clarke, an internet expert).Google Scholar

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40 Gutnick above n 38 at 618 [86].Google Scholar

41 eg Libya and Syria, which do not allow public access to the internet; Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates, which impose censorship: Human Rights Watch The internet in the Mideast and North Africa-Free Expression and Censorship (Human Rights Watch Washington 1999) 1Google Scholar; China: ‘Developments’ (n 48) 1680–1; Cuba: Resolution 180\2003.

42 Gutnick above n 38 at 617 [83].Google Scholar

43 ibid 618 ‘86’. However in Ligue Contre la Racisme et L'Antisemitisme & L'Union des Etudiants Juifs de France v Yahoo! Inc & Yahoo! France (TGI Paris, 22 mai 2000 et 20 novembre 2000, procedures n° 00/05308, 00/5309) the defendant was required to employ geographic filtering technologies to identify website users and limit access to content in certain places: A Monopoulos ‘Raising ‘Cyber-Borders’: The interaction between law and technology’ (2003) 11 Intl JL & Information Technology 41-3.

44 Walker, C, Wall, D, and Akdeniz, Y(eds) The Internet, Law and Society (Pearson Essex 2000) 3.Google Scholar

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48 Fitzgerald, B ‘Casenote on Dow Jones & Co Inc v Gutnick: Negotiating “American Legal Hegemony” in the transnational world of cyberspace‘ (2003) 27 Melbourne UL Rev 590, 590–1.Google Scholar

49 Smith above n 39 [1–003’, [1–016].Google Scholar

50 Gralla above n 33 132–3, 161–3.Google Scholar

51 ibid 135–7. To request a particular web page stored on a server, the user may (i) type the uniform resource locator (URL) of the web page into his browser, which identifies the data transfer protocol to use (for WWW the protocol is http), the IP address of the server and the website and the path and file name, or (ii) more commonly, type the plain language address (domain name) of the website where the web page is stored, or the domain name of the main access point for a collection of websites for a particular organization (home page), which is translated into a URL (and the home page may be navigated in order to find a particular web page), or (iii) if he cannot easily identify the particular web page, use the browser to navigate (surf) the web and click on a hypertext link (hyperlink), one of the many software links in the web's mesh that join web pages to each other, and this contains a URL for the web page.

52 Gralla above n 33 at 23; Tanenbaum above n 33 at 615.Google Scholar

53 ibid at 615, 618.

54 Sometimes other unrequested websites may appear (pop-ups), though they can be filteredout.Google Scholar

55 ibid 618–19.

56 ibid 615, 618.

57 This step is colloquially called ‘downloading’, though technically downloading occurs beforehand on receipt of data.Google Scholar

58 Perritt above n 35 § 1.2.Google Scholar

59 Gralla above n 33 90-3; Tanenbaum above n 33 592–4. The mail server is usually the sender's local internet service provider (ISP).Google Scholar

60 PiggOtt, FTService Out of the Jurisdiction (William Clowes & Sons London 1892) 1vii.Google Scholar

61 Dicey and Morris on the Conflict of Laws (13th ednSweet & Maxwell London 2000) [11R–001].Google Scholar

62 Piggott above n 60 lviii–lxiii.Google Scholar

63 Starting with the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 (UK) 15 and 16 Viet c 76.Google Scholar

64 Section 18.Google Scholar

65 Section 19.Google Scholar

66 Re Eager; Eager v Johnstone (1883) 22 Ch D 86, 87 (CA).Google Scholar

67 Maclean v Dawson (1859) 4 De G & J 150, 45 ER 58; Société Générale de Paris v Dreyfus Brothers (1885) 29 Ch D 239, 243.Google Scholar

68 RSC 1920 Ord XI r 1 (ee).Google Scholar

69 CPR r 6.20(8).Google Scholar

70 The wording since 2000.Google Scholar

71 The wording between 1920 and 2000.Google Scholar

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73 Other peripheral grounds are not dealt with in this article (eg where the defendant is a necessary and proper party).Google Scholar

74 eg Supreme Court Rules (General Civil Procedure) 1996 (Vic) r 7.01(l)(i); Rules of Court (BC) r 13(l)(h).Google Scholar

75 eg Federal Court of Australia Rules (Cth) r 8.01(b).Google Scholar

76 eg Rules of Court (Alta) r 30(q).Google Scholar

77 eg Rules of the Supreme Court 1971 (NSW) r 10.1A(l)(a); Uniform Civil Procedure Rules 1999 (Qld) r 124(l)(a).Google Scholar

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79 eg German Code of Civil Procedure §32.Google Scholar

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83 eg if the ‘double actionability’ rule is not satisfied then the claim cannot proceed in that court, regardless of the court having jurisdiction.Google Scholar

84 Dreyfus Brothers above n 67 at 242–3.Google Scholar

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86 Distillers Co (Biochemicals) Ltd v Thompson [1971] AC 458, 467 (PC).Google Scholar

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88 Distillers above n 86.Google Scholar

89 Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws (American Law Institute Publishers St Paul 1971) §145.Google Scholar

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96 ibid 469; George Monro above n 85 at 439.

97 Metall above n 21 at 449.Google Scholar

98 Arab Monetary Fund v Hashim [1996] 1 Lloyd's Rep 589, 597 (CA).Google Scholar

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101 Voth above n 93 at 567.Google Scholar

102 Distillers above n 86 at 469.Google Scholar

103 eg fixed and mobile telephones, telex, fax, radio, television (broadcasts, cable, satellite), and internet.Google Scholar

104 Voth above n 93 567-8.Google Scholar

105 eg Gutnick above n 38 at 630 [125].Google Scholar

106 Schlosser, P ‘Product Liability’ in McLachlan and Nygh above n 6 at 59, 78.Google Scholar

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109 Postcards: Toner v Hawkins (1885) 15 QBD 650, 680; radio broadcast: JennervSun Oil Co [1952] 2 DLR 526, 535, 537 (OntHCJ); television broadcast: Pindling v National Broadcasting Corp (1985) 14 DLR (4th) 391, 396 (OntHCJ); magazine: Berezovsky v Michaels [2000’ 1 WLR 1004, 1012, 1018, 1026 (HL).Google Scholar

110 Norbert Steinhardt v Meth (1961) 105 CLR 440, 442 (HCA).Google Scholar

111 Composers Authors and Publishers Assoc of Canada Ltd v International Good Music Inc [1963] SCR 136, 143-4; (1963) 37 DLR (2d) 1, 8.Google Scholar

112 WIC Premium Television Ltd v General Instrument Corp (2000) 266 AR 142 [18] (AltaCA).Google Scholar

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115 ibid.

116 eg Morin v Bonhams & Brooks Ltd [2004] 1 Lloyd's Rep 702 (CA), a choice of law case where it was held ([19’) that reliance was a continuum of activity, and the most significant aspect occurred where a purchase was made in reliance on false information.Google Scholar

117 Council Regulation (EC) 44\2001 of 22 Dec 2000 on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters [2000] OJ LI 2 (‘Judgments Regulation’) applies in the Member States of the European Union except Denmark. Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters of 27 Sept 1968 (consolidation available at [1998] OJ C27\1) (‘Brussels Convention’) applies in the Member States of the European Union including Denmark. Lugano Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters of 16 Sept 1988 [1988] OJ L319\9 (‘Lugano Convention’) applies in all the Member States of the EU, including Denmark, as well as Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland. An international instrument applying also outside Europe was contemplated along similar lines (The draft Hague Convention on Jurisdiction and Foreign Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters Interim Text 20 June 2001, amending the preliminary draft convention adopted by the Special Commission on 30 Oct 1999) but seems to have been abandoned for now, though there may be prospects for consensus on a modified draft (WE O'Brien Jr ‘The Hague Convention on Jurisdiction and Judgments: The way forward’ (2003) 66 MLR 491).Google Scholar

118 Art 4(1) in the Judgments Regulation, Brussels Convention and Lugano Convention.Google Scholar

119 Art 2(1) in the Judgments Regulation, Brussels Convention and Lugano Convention.Google Scholar

120 eg French Code of Civil Procedure Art 46.Google Scholar

121 Art 5(3) in the Judgments Regulation, Brussels Convention and Lugano Convention.Google Scholar

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135 NSW and Ontario had enacted a separate ‘damage suffered’ ground earlier, but this was not as a consequence of Bier.Google Scholar

136 Metall above n 21 437.Google Scholar

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138 Later adopted in much of the British Commonwealth.Google Scholar

139 eg Victorian Rules above n 75 r 7.01(1)(j); Rules of Civil Procedure 1990 (Can) r 17.02(h).Google Scholar

140 eg Federal Court of Australia Rules (Cth) r 8.01(c).Google Scholar

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143 Bier above n 129 [11].Google Scholar

144 Shevill above n 134.Google Scholar

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150 Case C-220/88 Dumez France and Tracoba v Hessische Landesbank (Helaba) [1990] ECR 1–49, 80 [20]–[22].Google Scholar

151 H van Houtte ‘Securities’ in McLachlan and Nygh above n 6 at 155, 167.Google Scholar

152 Case C-364/93 Marinari v Lloyds Bank pic and Zubaidi Trading Co [1995] ECR 2719 [14].Google Scholar

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166 ibid [7.3.1.6].

167 ibid.

168 Location of wrongs committed on international flights or sea-voyages was discussed in Lord, McNairThe Law of the Air (3rd ednStevens & Sons London 1964) 260–70, 281–3;Google ScholarDuckworth, LThe Principles of Marine Law (4th ednPitman & Sons London 1930) 30–1.Google Scholar

169 Collectively the ‘relevant exorbitant jurisdiction rules’.Google Scholar

170 Gutnick above n 38 601 [28], 606 [43]; Diamond above n 107 346.Google Scholar

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172 Distillers above n 86 at 467.Google Scholar

173 If at all-eg Private International Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1995 (UK) s ll(2)(c) contains a choice of l aw formulation that does not look at locus delicti.Google Scholar

174 Australian Law Reform Commission Choice of Law (Report No 58 1992) [50]–[59]. This recommendation has not been adopted, cf Rome II (above n 81) Art 3(1); Donahue v Warner Bros 194 F 2d 6, 22 (10th Cir 1952).Google Scholar

175 Although different laws might apply to different issues: Private International Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1995 (UK) s 12(1).Google Scholar

176 eg where the cause of action arose, where the event giving rise to damage occurred.Google Scholar

177 It would also apply in determining the place where the wrong occurred for the purposes of the draft Hague Convention (2001 version) Art 10(l)(a).Google Scholar

178 Identified above as the place where, in substance, the defendant acts.Google Scholar

179 In the case of an omission, the act of the defendant can be localized in the context of which the omission assumes significance.Google Scholar

180 Explained above as the transmission and placement of a web page in the storage area of a server.Google Scholar

181 As argued by defendant in United States v Thomas 74 F 3d 701 (6th Cir 1996).Google Scholar

182 JC Ginsburg ‘Private international law aspects of the protection of works and objects of related rights transmitted through digital networks’ (GCPIC/2 WIPO 30 Nov 1998) 18.Google Scholar

183 CPR r 6.20(8).Google Scholar

184 Distillers above n 86 at 468.Google Scholar

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186 Gutnick (n 38) 606 [43].Google Scholar

187 Australian Competition & Consumer Commission v Hughes (2002) ATPR 41–863; [2002] FCA 270 [78].Google Scholar

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190 Though it may still be suitable for choice of law.Google Scholar

191 As in most English common law jurisdictions.Google Scholar

192 Particularly on websites, but also emails sent to recipients with an unknown location.Google Scholar

193 Voth above n 93 at 568.Google Scholar

194 Nimmer on Copyright (Matthew Bender 1982) vol 3 §17.02Google Scholar; Laddie, H, Prescott, P, and Vitoria, MThe Modern Law of Copyright and Designs (2nd ednButterworths London 1995) [24.19]Google Scholar; Copinger and Skone James on Copyright (14th ednSweet & Maxwell London 1999) vol 1 [22–49]Google Scholar; Jooris, E ‘Infringement of foreign copyright and the jurisdiction of English courts’ [1996] EIPR 127, 140Google Scholar; cf Fawcett, J and Torremans, PIntellectual Property and Private International Law (OUP Oxford 1998) 164, 623.Google Scholar

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196 International Good Music above n 111 at 143-4.Google Scholar

197 Society of Composers, Authors and Music Publishers of Canada v Canadian Assoc of Internet Providers (2004) 240 DLR (4th) 193, 214 [43] (SCC).Google Scholar

198 Such cases arise less frequently following the adoption of the Uniform Domain Names Dispute Resolution Policy by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the enactment of the Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act 1999 (US) (15 USC §1125(d)) giving in rem jurisdiction over domain names.Google Scholar

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200 Citigroup Inc v City Holding Co 97 F Supp 2d 549, 567 (SDNY 2000).Google Scholar

201 National Football League v Miller 54 USPQ 2d (BNA) 1574 [2] (SDNY 2000); American Network Inc v Access America 975 F Supp 494, 497 (SDNY 1997); Hearst Corp v Goldberger 1997 WL 97097 [10] (SDNY).Google Scholar

202 Citigroup (above n 200) 567.Google Scholar

203 Menashe Business Mercantile Ltd v William Hill Organisation Ltd [2003] 1 WLR 1462; [2002] EWCA Civ 1702 [33].Google Scholar

204 Pearce v Ove Arup Partnership Ltd [2000] Ch 403, 436 (CA).Google Scholar

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206 Though the court must apply that foreign law as the lex loci protectionis.Google Scholar

207 Torremans above n 205 at 242.Google Scholar

208 A Briggs above n 16 at 50.Google Scholar

209 eg an Australian court has jurisdiction in a case of spam email if there is an ‘Australian link’ (as defined in Spam Act 2003 (Cth) s 7), regardless of the place of commission of the contravention (s 14).Google Scholar

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212 eg place where damage ‘is suffered’, ‘is sustained’, ‘occurs‘, ‘is caused‘, or ‘results’.Google Scholar

213 Reed, C above n 47 [7.1.3.5].Google Scholar

214 eg Challenor v Douglas [1983] 2 NSWLR 405, 408–11; Flaherty v Girgis (1985) 4 NSWLR 248, 266–7.Google Scholar

215 Shevill above n 134 [27]-[33].Google Scholar

216 Art 10 of the draft Hague Convention (2001 version) contemplates this.Google Scholar

217 Vick, DW and Macpherson, L ‘Anglicizing defamation law in the European Union’ (1996) 36 Virginia J Intl L 933.Google Scholar

218 Castellblanch SA v Louis Roederer SA, Cass civ lère, 9 décembre 2003, pourvoi n° 0 1 -03.225.Google Scholar

219 GTE New Media Services Inc v Bellsouth Corp 199 F 3d 1343, 1349 (DC Cir 2000).Google Scholar

220 Dumez (above n 150) 80 [20]–[22].Google Scholar

221 Hasbro Inc v Clue Computing Inc 994 F Supp 34, 43 (D Mass 1997); Ford Motor Co v Great Domains Inc 141 F Supp 2d 763, 771 (EDMich 2001).Google Scholar

222 eg misleading or deceptive conduct in Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth) s 52: Hunter Grain Pty Ltd v Hyundai Merchant Marine Co Ltd (1993) 117 ALR 507, 518-20 (FCA).Google Scholar

223 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Chen [2002] FCA 1248 [4]-[5].Google Scholar

224 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Chen (2003) 201 ALR 40; [2003] FCA 897 [46]–[61].Google Scholar

225 Delta, GB and Matsuura, JHLaw of the Internet (Looseleaf 2nd ednAspen Law & Business New York 2003) §3.05 urges defendants to incorporate an internet business separately from the rest of the business operation in order to shield assets from worldwide liability.Google Scholar

226 The draft Hague Convention, in so far as it aims to deal with reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments, would be a step forward.Google Scholar

227 Svantesson, D ‘Jurisdictional issues in cyberspace: At the cross-roads—The proposed Hague Convention and the future of internet defamation’ (2002) 18 Computer L & Security Report 191, 195.Google Scholar

228 Shevill above n 134 [24]–[33].Google Scholar

229 The effect of this limitation may be more apparent than real: Vick, DW and Macpherson, L ‘Anglicizing defamation law in the European Union’ (1996) 36 Virginia J Intl L 933.Google Scholar

230 A Reed above n 163 at 98.Google Scholar

231 eg Australia.Google Scholar

232 Gutnick above n 38 at 601 [28].Google Scholar

233 Australia: Gutnick (above n 38) 608 [48]; England: Chadha v Dow Jones & Co Inc [1999] Entertainment & Media L Rep 724, 732; [1999] EWCA Civ 1415; Berezovsky (above n 109) 1012, 1018, 1026 (HL); Godfrey (above n 19) 208–9; Loutchansky v Times Newspapers Ltd [2002] QB 783 [58]; Harrods v Dow Jones [2003] EWHC 1162 (QB); King v Lewis [2004] EWCA Civ 1329 [2]; Richardson v Schwarzenegger [2004] EWHC 2422 [19] (QB); Canada: Bangoura v Washington Post (2004) 235 DLR (4th) 564 (OntSCJ) [14]–[22]; Hong Kong: Investasia Ltd v Kodansha Co Ltd [1999] 3 HKC 515; Malaysia: Lee Teck Chee v Merrill Lynch International Bank Ltd [1998] 110 MLJU 1; [1998] 4 Current LJ 188, 194-5. cf Singapore: Goh Chok Tong v Tang Liang Hong [1997] 2 SLR 641 [33], [67], [78]. See generally Coffins, MThe Law of Defamation and the Internet (OUP Oxford 2001) [24.19], [24.21], [24.26].Google Scholar

234 Cf Landgericht Miinchen I, Urteil vom 17 Oktober 1996, Az: HKO 12190/96, where a German Court assumed jurisdiction because world-wide accessibility of a defamatory statement on the internet meant that the injurious act was committed also in Germany.Google Scholar

235 Cf Bochan above n 26.Google Scholar

236 Gutnick above n 38 600-1 [26]-[27].Google Scholar

237 Cf Briggs, A ‘The Duke of Brunswick and defamation by internet’ (2003) 119 LQR 210.Google Scholar

238 Pullman v Hill [1891] 1 QB 524, 527; Hebditch v Mcllwaine [1894] 2 QB 54, 61; Bata v Bata [1948] WN 366, 367 (CA).Google Scholar

239 Bata above n 238 at 367.Google Scholar

240 Duke of Brunswick v Harmer (1849) 14 QB 185, 189; 117 ER 75, 77.Google Scholar

241 Berezovsky (above n 109).Google Scholar

242 ibid 1012, 1018, 1026.

243 ibid 1023–4.

244 ibid 1013, 1017.

245 Gutnick (above n 38).Google Scholar

246 ibid 608 [48], 611-12 [65], 642 [163], 654[202].

247 ibid 607 [46]-[47], 610 [56], 622 [102].

248 ibid 606 [44], 621 [100], 652-3 [198]-[199].

249 ibid 608 [48].

250 ibid 595 [6].

251 ibid 606 [44].

252 Attorney-General for England and Wales v Tomlinson [1999] 3 NZLR 722 [21]–[24] (NZHC).Google Scholar

253 A New Zealand Court enjoined New Zealand defendants from using a particular domain name in UK and Europe, regardless of the practical difficulty of blocking access to the website by users in those territories: Containerlift Services v Maxwell Rotors Limited (No 2) (2004) 58 IPR 667 [14]–[15], [17], [22] (NZHC).Google Scholar

254 Re Burlands Trade Mark (1889) 41 ChD 542.Google Scholar

255 eg CPR r 6.20(2).Google Scholar

256 Article 5(3): ‘place where the harmful event…may occur.’ This appears in the Judgments Regulation, not in the Conventions, though the Conventions have been construed as allowing courts to enjoin conduct.Google Scholar

257 British Telecommunications v One in a Million Ltd [1999] 1 WLR 903 (CA); Oggi Advertising Ltd v McKenzie [1999] 1 NZLR 631 (NZHC); New Zealand Post (above n 199); Bell Actimedia Inc v Puzo (1999) 88 ACWS (3d) 1073 (FedCtTDiv) [50].Google Scholar

258 eg Dunlop Rubber Co Ltd v Dunlop [1921] AC 367 (HL); Tozier v Hawkins (1885) 15 QBD 680.Google Scholar

259 The jurisdiction to grant such injunction stems from the ‘damage’ limb of CPR r 6.20(8) or Judgments Regulation Art 5(3) by necessary implication.Google Scholar

260 eg New Zealand Post above n 199, where the Court ordered the defendant to delete the words ‘nz post’ from any website, and did not feel constrained to limit the injunction to the territory of New Zealand.Google Scholar

261 cf Mecklermedia above n 149 at 55.Google Scholar

262 But it is not altogether impossible: Speechworks Ltd v Speechworks International Inc [2000] ScotCS 200 [27]; Yahoo! above n 42. One method of excluding conduct from a particular territory is by the website's server determining the location of the client through his IP address, and blocking access to the website if the client is in the territory. Of course, this is not foolproof as it is possible to alter an IP address to show location in a different territory.Google Scholar

263 ‘Morocco Bound’ Syndicate Ltd v Harris [1895] 1 Ch 534.Google Scholar

264 As acknowledged in Chen above n 224 [46]–[61]. Generally at common law an injunction is not enforceable outside the jurisdiction: Marshall v Marshall (1888) 38 Ch D 330 (CA). Perhaps it is time to reform this rule: Pro Swing Inc v ELTA Golf Inc (2004) 71 OR (3d) 566, 570 [9] (OntCA on appeal to SCC). cf the Judgments Regulation, under which any order of a Member State's court, including an injunction, is enforceable in all other Member States.Google Scholar

265 Macquarie Bank v Berg (1999) Aust Defam Rep 53, 035; [1999] NSWSC 526.Google Scholar

266 ibid [11]-[15].

267 Garnett, R ‘Are foreign internet infringers beyond the reach of the law?’ (2000) 23 U New South Wales LJ 105, 123Google Scholar; Kohl, U ‘Defamation on the internet—a duty-free zone after all? Macquarie Bank v Berg’ (2000) 22 Sydney L Rev 119.Google Scholar

268 cf B Fitzgerald above n 48 608–11.Google Scholar