¹ Parry, C, The Sources and Evidences of International Law (Manchester University Press 1965) 103 Google Scholar.

² ibid.

³ See eg Wolfke, K, Custom in Present International Law (Martinus Nijhoff 1993) 76 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aust, A, Handbook of International Law (CUP 2010) 9 Google Scholar.

⁴ See eg O'Connell, DP, International Law: Volume One (Stevens and Sons 1965) 34 Google Scholar; Parry (n 1) 104. See also Oppenheim, L, ‘The Science of International Law: Its Task and Method’ (1908) 2 AJIL 313, 315 Google Scholar, noting that, in the absence of international courts, writers take the place of judges.

⁵ d'Aspremont, J, Formalism and the Sources of International Law (OUP 2011) 210 Google Scholar.

⁶ M Wood, ‘Teachings of the Most Highly Qualified Publicists (Art. 38(1) ICJ Statute)’ MPEPIL (online) para 16.

⁷ ‘Scholars in the Construction and Critique of International Law: Remarks of Bruno Simma’ (2000) 94 ASIL Procs 317, 319Google Scholar.

⁸ The Paquete Habana 175 US 677, 700 (1900).

⁹ Crawford, J, Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law (OUP 2012) 43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See, to similar effect, Wood (n 6); Pellet, A, ‘Article 38’ in Zimmermann, A, Tomuschat, C and Oellers-Frahm, K (eds), The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary (OUP 2006) 868–70Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-Verbaux of the Proceedings of the Committee: June 16th–July 24th 1920 (1920) 323, 351, 332, 319.

¹¹ ibid, 337 and 567.

¹² However, one member, de Lapradelle, did refer to the work of the Institut de Droit International in this regard. See ibid 336.

¹³ Wood (n 6) para 11. Crawford (n 9) 43 considers the work of the ILC to be ‘[a] source analogous to the writings of publicists’.

¹⁴ Serdar Mohammed and Others v Secretary of State for Defence [2015] EWCA Civ 843, para 171; Borda, AZ, ‘A Formal Approach to Article 38(1)(d) of the ICJ Statute from the Perspective of the International Criminal Courts and Tribunals’ (2013) 24 EJIL 649, 656–7Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Wood (n 6) para 11; Sourang, M, ‘Jurisprudence and Teachings’ in Bedjaoui, M (ed), International Law: Achievements and Prospects (UNESCO 1991) 285 Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Wood (n 6) para 11; Sourang (n 15) 285.

¹⁷ Some authors distinguish between different types of scholarship, namely ‘academic scholarship’, that is to say ‘pure academic research’ and ‘scholarship of action’, which includes ‘the work of the International Law Commission (ILC) or the Institute of International Law, for example, or individual opinions of international judges … or possibly amicus briefs by individuals, experts, or non-governmental organizations’. See C Stahn and E De Brabandere, ‘The Future of International Legal Scholarship: Some Thoughts on “Practice”, “Growth”, and “Dissemination”’ (2014) 27 LJIL 1, 2, referring to A Oraison, ‘Réflexions sur “la doctrine des publicistes les plus qualifiés des différentes nations” (flux et reflux relatifs des forces doctrinales académiques et finalisée)’ (1991) 24 RBDI 509.

¹⁸ Roberts, A and Sivakumaran, S, ‘Lawmaking by Nonstate Actors: Engaging Armed Groups in the Creation of International Humanitarian Law’ (2012) 37 YaleJIL 107, 116Google Scholar.

¹⁹ It is thus a second-level state-empowered entity. See ibid.

²⁰ Statute of the International Law Commission, art 1(1), annexed to GA Res 174 (II) (1947).

²¹ Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, annexed to GA Res 428 (V) (1950), art 8(a).

²² UNHCR Executive Committee, Conclusion No 8 (XXVIII) Determination of Refugee Status (1977) para (f). See Goodwin-Gill, GS, ‘The Search for the One, True Meaning …’ in Goodwin-Gill, GS and Lambert, H, The Limits of Transnational Law (CUP 2010) 210–12Google Scholar.

²³ HCR/IP/4/Eng/REV.1 (1979), re-edited (January 1992).

²⁴ The International Conference comprises States parties to the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC, the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, and national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

²⁵ Statutes of the International Red Cross Movement, art 5(2)(g) and (h), adopted at the 25th International Conference of the Red Cross (1986) (as amended).

²⁶ Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts: Compilation of decisions of international courts, tribunals and other bodies, Report of the Secretary-General, A/62/62, 1 February 2007. Later compilations have updated the citation count. See A/65/76 and A/68/72.

²⁷ A Pronto and M Wood, The International Law Commission 1999–2009 (OUP 2011) 4.

²⁸ Along similar lines, Wood (n 6) para 12, has noted that ‘[t]he product of the ILC has a particular standing, given its position as a subsidiary organ of the UN General Assembly its special relationship with governments and the United Nations Sixth Committee, and the fact that its product is not infrequently adopted as a convention or otherwise endorsed by the General Assembly’.

²⁹ On the interaction between different actors within the community of international lawyers, see section IV.

³⁰ R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p Adan [2001] 2 AC 477, 520 per Lord Steyn. See also R v Asfaw [2008] UKHL 31, para 13, per Lord Bingham; Al Sirri v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2012] UKSC 54, para 36.

³¹ Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v Qaah of 2004 [2006] HCA 53, para 76.

³² Serdar Mohammed (n 14) para 171.

³³ Adopted at the 52nd ILA Conference in Helsinki in 1966.

³⁴ Bourne, CB, ‘The International Law Association's Contribution to International Water Resources Law’ (1996) 36 Natural Resources Journal 155, 215Google Scholar; Salmon, SMA, ‘The Helsinki Rules, the UN Watercourses Convention and the Berlin Rules: Perspectives on International Water Law’ (2007) 23 Water Resources Development 625, 630Google Scholar.

³⁵ Of particular note are: the 1975 Joint Declaration of Principles for Utilization of the Waters of the Lower Mekong Basin (adopted by the Mekong Committee, composed of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam); the Southern African Development Community Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems (1995); and the Agreement between Namibia and South Africa on the Establishment of a Permanent Water Commission (1992). See Bourne (n 34) 215; Salmon (n 34) 630.

³⁶ See ILC, Draft Articles on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses and Commentaries thereto and Resolution on Transboundary Confined Groundwater (1994).

³⁷ The Preamble of the Convention notes that it is ‘Mindful of the valuable contribution of international organizations, both governmental and non-governmental, to the codification and progressive development of international law in this field.’ See further Salmon (n 34) 632.

³⁸ UK Ministry of Defence, Manual on the Law of Armed Conflict (OUP 2004) para 13.2 (fn omitted).

³⁹ Canada, Law of Armed Conflict (2001) para 801.2.

⁴⁰ The article is: Fenrick, WJ, ‘The Exclusion Zone Device in the Law of Naval Warfare’ (1986) Canadian Yearbook of International Law 91 Google Scholar.

⁴¹ van Hegelsom, GJF, ‘Introductory Report: Methods and Means of Combat in Naval Warfare’ in von Heinegg, W Heintschel (ed), Methods and Means of Combat in Naval Warfare: Report and Commentaries of the Round-Table of Experts on International Humanitarian Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea (UVB 1992) 51 Google Scholar.

⁴² ibid. cf Fenrick (n 40) 124.

⁴³ Compare San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflict at Sea (CUP 1995) paras 106.2 and 106.5 with Fenrick (n 40) 125.

⁴⁴ Rosenne, S, The Perplexities of Modern International Law (Martinus Nijhoff 2004) 53 Google Scholar. See also, to similar effect, Wood (n 6) para 11; Werle, G and Jessberger, F, Principles of International Criminal Law (OUP 2014) 60 Google Scholar. As noted above, the present article considers groups that have been empowered by States to carry out law-making functions, in this context, to produce teachings, to be of a separate category.

⁴⁵ Wolfke (n 3) 76.

⁴⁶ For example, the composition of the International Group of Experts that drafted the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare has been criticized for being Western. See eg Liivoja, R and McCormack, T, ‘Law in the Virtual Battlespace: The Tallinn Manual and the Jus in Bello ’ (2012) 15 YIHL 45, 57Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ On which, see Parry (n 1) 104–5. See also Crawford (n 9) 43.

⁴⁸ The terms ‘ordinary’ publicist and ‘individual’ publicist are used to differentiate that category from the category of state-empowered entity and expert group publicist. The writing of an ‘individual’ publicist is not limited to sole-authored works.

⁴⁹ Shue, H, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence and U.S. Foreign Policy (2nd edn, Princeton University Press 1996) 52 Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Eide has provided an account of the development. See Eide, A, ‘State Obligations Revisited’ in Eide, WB and Kracht, U (eds), Food and Human Rights in Development: Volume II (Intersentia 2007) 146 Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Eide, A, ‘The International Human Rights System’ in Eide, A et al. , Food as a human right (UNU 1984) 154 Google Scholar.

⁵² Report on the Right to Adequate Food as a Human Right, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1987/23, 7 July 1987.

⁵³ CESCR, General Comment No 12: The Right to Adequate Food (Art. 11), E/C.12/1999/5, 12 May 1999. The Committee refers to the Report on the Right to Adequate Food as the basis for the tripartite categorization.

⁵⁴ Published as: K M'Baye, ‘Le Droit au Developpement comme un Droit de L'Homme’ (1972) 5 Revue des Droits de l'Homme 503. The author and the article are credited by many as first advancing the idea of a right to development. See eg Donnelly, J, ‘In Search of the Unicorn: The Jurisprudence and Politics of the Right to Development’ (1985) 15 CalWIntlLJ 473 Google Scholar; Bunn, ID, The Right to Development and International Economic Law (Hart Publishing 2012) 40–4Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Thirty-Third Session, E/CN.4/1257 (1977) at 74.

⁵⁶ Report of the Secretary-General, E/CN.4/1334 (1979).

⁵⁷ E/CN.4/1408 (1980) 162.

⁵⁸ GA Res 34/46 (1979).

⁵⁹ GA Res 41/128 (1986).

⁶⁰ eg SRYYY v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Judgment [2005] FCAFC 42, ILDC 981.

⁶¹ eg R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) [2000] AC 147, 283 per Lord Phillips.

⁶² eg Adalah (Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel) and ors v General Officer Commanding Central Command, Israeli Defence Force and ors, Original Petition, HCJ 3799/02, ILDC 155.

⁶³ United States v Yousef 327 F.3d 56 (4 April 2003) paras 126 and 127.

⁶⁴ But compare Oppenheim, ‘The Science of International Law’ (n 4) 345, drawing the distinction between ‘writers at large and writers of authority’.

⁶⁵ Procès-Verbaux (n 10) 323, 336, 337.

⁶⁶ Parry (n 1) 108, has suggested that ‘it is as difficult to decide who “the most highly qualified publicists” are as it is to say what is a peace-loving nation within the meaning of the Charter of the United Nations’.

⁶⁷ The Paquete Habana (n 8) 700.

⁶⁸ See eg Sosa v Alvarez-Machain et al 124 S Ct 2739, 2766.

⁶⁹ Procès-Verbaux (n 10) 323, 319, 344, 334.

⁷⁰ ibid 567.

⁷¹ It is also somewhat artificial. As will be seen, the categories blend into one another.

⁷² LB Sohn, ‘Sources of International Law’ (1995–6) 25 GaJIntl&CompL 399, 399–401.

⁷³ MM Whiteman, Digest of International Law (published between 1963 and 1973); GC Hackworth, Digest of International Law (published between 1940 and 1944); JB Moore, A Digest of International Law (1906); F Wharton, A Digest of the International Law of the United States Taken from Documents Issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State and from Decisions of Federal Courts and Opinions (1887).

⁷⁴ Moore (n 73) vol I, iv.

⁷⁵ Reisman, WM, ‘Lassa Oppenheim's nine lives’ (1994) 19 YaleJIL 255, 259Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ ibid.

⁷⁷ O'Connell (n 4) 35.

⁷⁸ For example, the Australian Year Book of International Law contains a section on ‘Australian Practice in International Law’.

⁷⁹ ‘Scholars in the Construction and Critique of International Law’, Remarks by Goldsmith, Jack (2000) 94 ASIL Procs 317, 318–19Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ See section III.C.

⁸¹ Aceves, WJ, ‘Symposium Introduction: Scholarship as Evidence of International Law’ (2003) 26 LoyLAIntl&CompLRev 1, 4–5Google Scholar.

⁸² The Paquete Habana (n 8) 700.

⁸³ Wood (n 6) para 3.

⁸⁴ Lauterpacht, H, The Development of International Law by the International Court (Stevens and Sons 1958) 25 Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ Nussbaum, A, A Concise History of the Law of Nations (Macmillan 1947) 236 Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Plucknett, TFT, Early English Legal Literature (CUP 1958) 20 Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ Reisman (n 75) 257.

⁸⁸ Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625).

⁸⁹ Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1672).

⁹⁰ Vattel, Le droit des gens (1773).

⁹¹ Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt (1868).

⁹² Fiore, Trattato di diritto internazionale public (1865).

⁹³ Hall, A Treatise on International Law (1880).

⁹⁴ Halleck, International Law (1861).

⁹⁵ Oppenheim, International Law (1905).

⁹⁶ Pradier-Fodéré, Traité de droit international public (1885).

⁹⁷ Wheaton, Elements of International Law (1866).

⁹⁸ For a list of international law treatises published in the UK between 1800 and 1970, see Crawford, J, ‘Public International Law in Twentieth-century England’ in Beatson, J and Zimmermann, R, Jurists Uprooted (OUP 2004) 702 Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ Reisman (n 75) 256.

¹⁰⁰ Nussbaum (n 85) 277.

¹⁰¹ Franck, TM, ‘Review Essay: The Case of the Vanishing Treatises’ (1987) 81 AJIL 763, 763Google Scholar.

¹⁰² ibid 764–6.

¹⁰³ Onuf, NG, ‘Book Review of Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de la Haye, 1989. 5 vols’. (1992) 86 AJIL 834, 834Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ ibid.

¹⁰⁵ It has been said that ‘Nowhere is the art of writing general textbooks and treatises more assiduously practiced than in France.’ de Mestral, A, ‘Book Review of Droit International ’ (1994) 88 AJIL 553, 553CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ ibid.

¹⁰⁷ Warbrick, C, ‘ Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law: An Assessment ’ (2000) 11 EJIL 621, 628Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Warbrick himself notes this. See ibid. Furthermore, the division between treatises and textbooks is not a binary one. See Sender, O and Wood, M, ‘Book Review’ (2013) 107 AJIL 959, 962Google Scholar. For example, there are introductions to international law that are intended also for the lay reader, such as Brierly's International Law, most recently the 7th edition by Andrew Clapham.

¹⁰⁹ Oppenheim (n 95) vii.

¹¹⁰ Fitzmaurice, GG, ‘The Foundations of the Authority of International Law and the Problem of Enforcement’ (1956) 19 MLR 1, 2Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ Sir R Jennings and Sir A Watts, Oppenheim's International Law (9th edn, Longman 1996) xiii. For some criticism of this, see the review by Janis, MW, ‘The New Oppenheim and its Theory of International Law’ (1996) 16 OJLS 329 Google Scholar.

¹¹² Starke, JG, An Introduction to International Law (Butterworth and Co, 1st edn, 1947) v Google Scholar.

¹¹³ Warbrick (n 107) 623.

¹¹⁴ See eg S Wordsworth QC, ‘Book Review’ (2013) 2 Cambridge JICL 350, 350 and 354.

¹¹⁵ For its characterization as a textbook, see Warbrick (n 107) 628. For its characterization as a treatise, see Review by RR Baxter (1967) 42 BYBIL 333, 333.

¹¹⁶ Watson, GR, ‘Review Essay: Treatises and Study Aids for American Students of International Law’ (2005) 99 AJIL 932, 937 fn 6Google Scholar, has indicated that ‘such a book would rarely be used as a “textbook” in the United States, and thus Americans are likely to regard it as a “treatise”’.

¹¹⁷ Hall, WE, A Treatise on International Law (2nd edn, Clarendon Press 1884)Google Scholar. cf the first edition, entitled International Law (Clarendon Press 1880).

¹¹⁸ Higgins, AP, Halls’ International Law (8th edn, 1924) xi Google Scholar.

¹¹⁹ See eg O'Connell (n 4) ix–xv, which contains numerous references to its being a practitioner's work.

¹²⁰ Sender and Wood (n 108) 962.

¹²¹ See section IV.B.3.

¹²² Writing in 1965, Parry (n 1) 104, observed that ‘[w]e have passed out of the age of the institutional writer into that of the specialist monograph’.

¹²³ John Louth, the Editor-in-Chief of Academic Law at Oxford University Press, has identified 401 books that were published on international law in English, French or German between April 2014 and March 2015 alone. See J Louth, ‘How Many International Law Books are Published in a Year?’ Opinio Juris, 8 April 2015, available at <http://opiniojuris.org/2015/04/08/guest-post-how-many-international-law-books-are-published-in-a-year/>.

¹²⁴ Weiler, JHH, ‘On My Way Out – Advice to Young Scholars II: Career Strategy and the Publication Trap’ (2015) 26 EJIL 795, 795Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Stahn and De Brabandere (n 17) 7.

¹²⁶ ibid 6; Weiler (n 124) 795.

¹²⁷ ibid.

¹²⁸ Solum, LB, ‘Blogging and the Transformation of Legal Scholarship’ (2006) 84 Washington University Law Review 1071, 1075Google Scholar.

¹²⁹ See Baetans, F and Prislan, V, ‘The Dissemination of International Scholarship: The Future of Books and Book Reviews’ (2014) 27 LJIL 559, 559Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ ibid 561.

¹³¹ ibid.

¹³² The Paquete Habana (n 8) 700.

¹³³ Serdar Mohammed (n 14) para 171. See also Haidar Ali Hussein v Secretary of State for Defence [2013] EWHC 95, para 33 (‘long been regarded as a valuable source of determining the correct construction of the various Conventions’).

¹³⁴ Prosecutor v Tadić, Appeals Chamber, Judgment, IT-94-1, 15 July 1999, para 93.

¹³⁵ See eg Haidar Ali Hussein (n 133).

¹³⁶ Prosecutor v Martić, Trial Chamber, Judgment, IT-95-11-T, 12 June 2007, fn 137.

¹³⁷ Prosecutor v Stakić, Appeals Chamber, Judgment, IT-97-24-A, 22 March 2006, para 305. See also outside the context of the ICTY, Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award, Prisoners of War, Eritrea's Claim 17, 1 July 2003, para 68.

¹³⁸ Indeed, there can be debate as to whether the commentaries should even be referred to as the ICRC Commentaries, or rather as the Pictet Commentaries.

¹³⁹ ICRC, Commentary I Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (ICRC 1952) 7 Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁰ ICRC, Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (ICRC 1987)Google Scholar Foreword.

¹⁴¹ Cole, T, ‘Non-Binding Documents and Literature’ in Gazzini, T and De Brabandere, E, International Investment Law: The Sources of Rights and Obligations (Martinus Nijhoff 2012) 305 Google Scholar.

¹⁴² For example, in the Mucić Appeal Judgment, the Appeals Chamber noted that ‘[t]he two commentaries on Additional Protocol I appear to agree that the French text which is broader, should be preferred’; the two commentaries being the ICRC Commentary and the Bothe, Partsch and Solf Commentary. See Prosecutor v Mucić et al, IT-96-21-A, Judgment, 20 February 2001, fn 331.

¹⁴³ Thirlway, H, The Sources of International Law (OUP 2014) 126–7Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁴ Sir Hurst, CJB, ‘Foreword’ (1947) 1 ILQ 1 Google Scholar. For a reflection on the contribution of the Quarterly, see Redgwell, C, ‘60 Years of Legal Scholarship in the International and Comparative Law Quarterly’ (2012) 61 ICLQ 1 Google Scholar, in particular the assessments by Malcolm Evans and Robert McCorquodale.

¹⁴⁵ ‘Prospectus: The Aim and Scope of the American Society of International Law’ (1907) 1 AJIL 130, 131Google Scholar. See also ‘History of the Organization of the American Society of International Law’ (1907) 1 ASIL Procs 23, 28–30Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁶ Bederman, DJ, ‘Appraising a Century of Scholarship in the American Journal of International Law ’ (2006) 100 AJIL 20, 57Google Scholar. See also Bishop, WW Jr, ‘Editorial Comment’ (1962) 56 AJIL 997, 998Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁷ Root, E, ‘The Need of Popular Understanding of International Law’ (1907) 1 AJIL 1, 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁸ ibid 2.

¹⁴⁹ Bederman (n 146) 22.

¹⁵⁰ Scott, JB, ‘Editorial Comment’ (1907) 1 AJIL 129, 135Google Scholar. See also History of the American Society of International Law (n 145) 28–30.

¹⁵¹ See Kirgis, FL, ‘The Formative Years of the American Society of International Law’ (1996) 90 AJIL 559, 569Google Scholar.

¹⁵² General Editor, ‘Editorial Comment’ (1989) 1 AJICL xix, xix.

¹⁵³ The Editors, ‘An Asian Journal of International Law’ (2011) 1 AsianJIL 1.

¹⁵⁴ Tieya, W and Yee, S, ‘Foreword’ (2002) 1 Chinese IL iiiGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵⁵ Mälksoo, L, Russian Approaches to International Law (OUP 2015) 92 Google Scholar notes that, in the UN Audiovisual Library of International Law, German and Japanese international lawyers give their presentations in English, thus attracting a broader global audience. By contrast, most of the Russian international lawyers have presented in Russian, thus limiting the reach of their presentation.

¹⁵⁶ See <https://www.icrc.org/en/international-review/overview>.

¹⁵⁷ Tieya and Yee (n 154) iii.

¹⁵⁸ Bederman (n 146) 58. See further Kirgis (n 151) 574.

¹⁵⁹ See eg then Editor-in-Chief of the Leiden Journal of International Law, van den Herik, L, ‘Introduction: LJIL in the Age of Cyberspace’ (2012) 25 LJIL 1, 6Google Scholar, noting that ‘law journals cannot compete with blogs as information providers’.

¹⁶⁰ M Milanovic, ‘Some Thoughts on the Serdar Mohammed Appeals Judgment’, EJIL: Talk! Blog, 10 August 2015, available at <http://www.ejiltalk.org/some-thoughts-on-the-serdar-mohammed-appeals-judgment/>, indicating that the UK Government argued before the Court of Appeal that the Court should not refer to blog posts, as the lack of blind peer review makes posts less rigorous.

¹⁶¹ B Leiter, ‘Why Blogs are Bad for Legal Scholarship’, YaleLJ Forum, 19 September 2006, available at <http://www.yalelawjournal.org/forum/why-blogs-are-bad-for-legal-scholarship>. See also J d'Aspremont, ‘In Defense of the Hazardous Tool of Legal Blogging’ EJIL: Talk! Blog, 6 January 2011, available at <http://www.ejiltalk.org/in-defense-of-the-hazardous-tool-of-legal-blogging/>, who ultimately concludes that the hazards are outweighed by the virtues of blogging.

¹⁶² See eg R Goodman and S Vladeck, ‘Welcome to Just Security!’, Just Security Blog, 23 September 2013, available at <https://www.justsecurity.org/965/security/>, in which the authors note that they hope the blog will ‘become a ready resource for decision-makers, analysts, and practitioners who address difficult U.S. national security law issues, and an invaluable reference for those simply trying to stay abreast of the daily developments in this ever-moving field.’

¹⁶³ For example, they are not infrequently cited by courts and tribunals. See eg Serdar Mohammed (n 14) paras 197, 208 and 241.

¹⁶⁴ The focus on teachings in written form seems to be due to the use of the term ‘writings of publicists’ as interchangeable with ‘teachings of publicists’, as well as the difficulties in becoming aware of teachings in oral form prior to changes in technology. Historically, it would also have been more difficult to prove that the view of a publicist was X if the view had not been expressed in writing.

¹⁶⁵ Twining, W, ‘The Role of Academics in the Legal System’ in Tushnet, M and Cane, P (eds), Oxford Handbook of Legal Studies (OUP 2005) 926 Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁶ Duxbury, N, Jurists and Judges: An Essay on Influence (Hart Publishing 2001) 5 Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ ibid 6.

¹⁶⁸ The concept is related to, but differs from, the idea of the interpretive community, as it extends beyond matters of interpretation. On which, see Waibel, M, ‘Interpretive Communities in International Law’ in Bianchi, A, Peat, D and Windsor, M (eds), Interpretation in International Law (OUP 2015) 147 Google Scholar. Likewise, the concept is related to, but differs from, that of the epistemic community, as there is no need for a shared episteme. On which, see Bianchi, A, ‘Epistemic Communities’ in D'Aspremont, J and Singh, S (eds), Fundamental Concepts for International Law (Edward Elgar, forthcoming 2017)Google Scholar. It is perhaps most closely related to Schachter, O, ‘The Invisible College of International Lawyers’ (1977) 72 Northwestern University Law Review 217 Google Scholar; and Hernández, G, ‘The Responsibility of the International Legal Academic: Situating the Grammarian within the “Invisible College”’ in Nollkaemper, A et al. (eds), International Law as a Profession (CUP, forthcoming 2017)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁹ On the importance of the community of actors for questions of interpretation, see Johnstone, I, ‘Treaty Interpretation: The Authority of Interpretive Communities’ (1990) 12 MichJIntlL 371 Google Scholar; Johnstone, I, ‘The Power of Interpretive Communities’ in Barnett, M and Duvall, R (eds), Power in Global Governance (CUP 2004)Google Scholar; Waibel (n 168). See also Venzke, I, How Interpretation Makes International Law (OUP 2012)Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ See, from a different perspective, d'Aspremont (n 5) 210.

¹⁷¹ Waibel (n 168) 152–60.

¹⁷² See also Tobin, J, ‘Seeking to Persuade: A Constructive Approach to Human Rights Treaty Interpretation’ (2010) 23 HarvHumRtsJ 1, 8–10Google Scholar.

¹⁷³ Simma (n 7) 319.

¹⁷⁴ Sohn (n 72) 399–401.

¹⁷⁵ ibid 401. Sohn, at 399, also argues that international law is made by ‘the professors, the writers of textbooks and casebooks, and the authors of articles in leading international law journals’.

¹⁷⁶ The point has been noted by former government legal advisors. See eg Wood (n 6) para 16; M Lachs, ‘Teachings and Teaching of International Law’ (1976-III) 151 RdC 161, 218–19.

¹⁷⁷ See eg Memorandum Opinion on the Geographic Scope of the Convention Against Torture and Its Application in Situations of Armed Conflict, from Harold Hongju Koh, Legal Advisor, U.S. Department of State, 21 January 2013, available at <https://www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/state-department-cat-memo.pdf>.

¹⁷⁸ See eg United States Department of Defense, Law of War Manual (June 2015).

¹⁷⁹ See section IV.B.1.

¹⁸⁰ eg O'Connell (n 4) 35.

¹⁸¹ See Twining et al. (n 165) 931.

¹⁸² The Paquete Habana (n 8) 701. Kent continued, in a more questionable manner: ‘and no civilized nation that does not arrogantly set all ordinary law and justice at defiance will venture to disregard the uniform sense of the established writers on international law’.

¹⁸³ The Case of the S.S. ‘Lotus’, PCIJ Ser A No 10, at 26.

¹⁸⁴ Case of the S.S. ‘Wimbledon’, PCIJ Ser A, No 1, at 28.

¹⁸⁵ LaGrand Case (Germany v United States of America), Provisional Measures [2001] ICJ Rep 466, 501 (referring to ‘extensive controversy in the literature’).

¹⁸⁶ Lachs (n 176) 225. See also Stahn and De Brabandere (n 17) 4.

¹⁸⁷ See eg PCIJ: The Case of the S.S. ‘Lotus’, PCIJ Ser A No 10, at 26; Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, PCIJ Ser A No 6, at 20. See also ICJ: Nottebohm Case (Leichtenstein v Guatemala) (Second Phase) [1955] ICJ Rep 4, 22; Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons [1996] ICJ Rep 226, 259, para 85.

¹⁸⁸ Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua intervening) [1992] ICJ Rep 351, 593, para 394 (referring to the successive editors of Oppenheim's International Law and to G Gidel, Le droit international public de la mer (1934)); Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro) [2007] ICJ Rep 43, 125 (referring to R Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (1944)).

¹⁸⁹ See generally, Peil, M, ‘Scholarly Writings as a Source of Law: A Survey of the Use of Doctrine by the International Court of Justice’ (2012) 1 Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law 136 Google Scholar. The work of the ILC is cited heavily also by international investment tribunals. See Cole (n 141) 305.

¹⁹⁰ Thirlway (n 143) 127.

¹⁹¹ Crespi, GS, ‘The Influence of Two Decades of Contract Law Scholarship on Judicial Rulings: An Empirical Analysis’ (2004) 57 SMULRev 105, 106Google Scholar.

¹⁹² Crawford (n 9) 43.

¹⁹³ Kammerhofer, J, ‘Lawmaking by Scholars’ in Brolmann, C and Radi, Y (eds), Research Handbook on the Theory and Practice of International Lawmaking (Edward Elgar 2016) 305, 322Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Duxbury (n 166) 14–15.

¹⁹⁵ Kammerhofer (n 193) 323.

¹⁹⁶ See section II.C.

¹⁹⁷ See section II.A.

¹⁹⁸ See section II.B.

¹⁹⁹ Bellinger, JB III and Haynes, WJ II, ‘A US Government Response to the International Committee of the Red Cross Study Customary International Humanitarian Law ’ (2007) 89 IRRC 443 Google Scholar.

²⁰⁰ See section II.C.

²⁰¹ Twining (n 165) 927. See also, on the international level, Lachs (n 176) 214.

²⁰² DJ Bederman, ‘Review Essay, International Law Casebooks: Tradition, Revision, and Pedagogy’ (2004) 98 AJIL 200, 200.

²⁰³ de Mestral (n 105) 553 (emphasis added).

²⁰⁴ Bederman (n 202) 206. See further AE Roberts, Is International Law International? (OUP forthcoming 2017).

²⁰⁵ See Roberts, ibid.

²⁰⁶ Duxbury (n 166) 104, referring to Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, II, 784–808.

²⁰⁷ See Roberts (n 204).

²⁰⁸ Duxbury (n 166) 20–1.

²⁰⁹ It has been noted that the ‘organization’ of Gengsheng, Zhou, Guoji Fa (International Law) (Shangwu Yinshuguan 1981)Google Scholar ‘is primarily based on Oppenheim's treatise on international law, edited by H Lauterpacht’. See Gross, L and Chiu, H, Book Review (1983) 77 AJIL 977, 978Google Scholar.

²¹⁰ See, for example, Mälksoo (n 155) 60–1, noting that there was ‘a tradition of translating prominent West European works on international law … until the late nineteenth century’.

²¹¹ Hernández (n 168).

²¹² ibid.

²¹³ Duxbury (n 166) 5.

²¹⁴ Compare, for example, Cassese, A, ‘Terrorism as an International Crime’ in Bianchi, A (ed), Enforcing International Law Norms Against Terrorism (2004)Google Scholar with Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law: Terrorism, Conspiracy, Homicide, Perpetration, Cumulative Charging, Case No STL-11-01/I, 16 February 2011.

²¹⁵ See section II.C.

²¹⁶ See Donnelly (n 54) 474.

²¹⁷ See the comment of S Ratner, to the blog post by M Milanovic, ‘The ICRC's Functional Approach to Occupation’ EJIL: Talk!, 18 November 2015, available at <http://www.ejiltalk.org/the-icrcs-position-on-a-functional-approach-to-occupation/>.

²¹⁸ UNHCR, Procedural Standards for Refugee Status Determination under UNHCR's Mandate (2005) 1–4 and Annex 1-1; M Alexander, ‘Refugee Status Determination Conducted by UNHCR’ (1999) 11 IJRL 251, 254.

²¹⁹ See Lachs (n 176) 218.

²²⁰ See Vrdoljak, AF, ‘Human Rights and Genocide: The Work of Lauterpacht and Lemkin in Modern International Law’ (2009) 20 EJIL 1163, 1189Google Scholar.

²²¹ Thomas, JC, ‘Reflections on Article 1105 of NAFTA: History, State Practice and the Influence of Commentators’ (2002) 17 ICSID Review 21, 51–2Google Scholar, referring to Mann, FA, ‘British Treaties for the Promotion and Protection of Investments’ (1981) LII BYBIL 241, 243Google Scholar.

²²² Thomas (n 221) 58, referring to Mann, FA, The Legal Aspects of Money (4th edn, 1982) 510 Google Scholar, expressing the same position as the third edition of the work, 1971, at 532.

²²³ Thomas (n 221) 58.

²²⁴ ibid 59.

²²⁵ Mortensen, J, ‘The Meaning of “Investment”: ICSID's Travaux and the Domain of International Investment Law’ (2010) 51 HarvIntlLJ 257, 272Google Scholar. Compare Salini Costruttori S.P.A. and Italstrade S.P.A. v Kingdom of Morocco, Case No ARB/004, Decision on Jurisdiction, para 52 ((2003) 42 ILM 609), with CH Schreuer, The ICSID Convention: A Commentary (CUP 2001) 140.

²²⁶ Malaysian Historical Salvors Sdn, Bhd v The Government of Malaysia, ICSID Case No ARB/05/10, Award on Jurisdiction, para 74.

²²⁷ See eg Mr Saba Fakes v Republic of Turkey, ICSID Case No ARB/07/20, Award, para 103.

²²⁸ Schreuer, CH et al. , The ICSID Convention: A Commentary (CUP, 2nd edn, 2009) 133 Google Scholar.

²²⁹ Duxbury (n 166) 15.

²³⁰ Attributed to Bin Cheng: Cheng, B, ‘United Nations Resolutions on Outer Space: “Instant” International Customary Law?’ (1965) 5 IJIL 23 Google Scholar.

²³¹ Originating out of the idea that ‘as the number of parties to a treaty increases, it becomes more difficult to demonstrate what is the state of customary international law dehors the treaty’. Baxter, RR, ‘Treaties and Custom’ (1970) 129 Recueil des Cours 27, 64Google Scholar.

²³² Duxbury (n 166) 15.

²³³ Hernández (n 168) 6. See further d'Aspremont, J, ‘Wording in International Law’ (2012) 25 LJIL 575, 586–7Google Scholar.

²³⁴ Charlesworth, H, Chinkin, C and Wright, S, ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’ (1991) 85 AJIL 613 Google Scholar.

²³⁵ Chinkin, C, Wright, S and Charlesworth, H, ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law: Reflections from Another Century’ in Buss, D and Manji, A (eds), International Law: Modern Feminist Approaches (Hart Publishing 2005) 17, 17–18Google Scholar. See also Charlesworth, H, ‘Alienating Oscar? Feminist Analysis of International Law’ in Dallmeyer, DG (ed), Reconceiving Reality: Women and International Law (ASIL 1993) 1 Google Scholar.

²³⁶ Postcolonial or Third World Approaches to International Law did not feature in the leading AJIL symposium on method in international law, an omission that was put down to an ‘error of ignorance rather than deliberate exclusion’. See Richardson, HJ III, ‘Correspondence’ (2000) 94 AJIL 99 Google Scholar and the reply thereto, at 101. See further Anghie, A and Chimni, BS, ‘Third World Approaches to International Law and Individual Responsibility in Internal Conflicts’ (2003) 2 ChineseJIL 77 Google Scholar.

²³⁷ Anghie and Chimni, ibid, 87.

²³⁸ Hernández (n 168) 27.

²³⁹ Charlesworth, H, ‘Feminist Ambivalence about International Law’ (2005) 11 International Legal Theory 1, 2Google Scholar.

²⁴⁰ Cited in Schwartz, DL and Petherbridge, L, ‘The Use of Legal Scholarship by the Federal Court of Appeals: An Empirical Study’ (2011) 96 CornellLRev 1345, 1347Google Scholar. See also Edwards, HT, ‘The Growing Disjunction between Legal Education and the Legal Profession’ (1992–93) 91 MichLRev 34 Google Scholar.

²⁴¹ Hernández (n 168).

²⁴² Stahn and De Brabandere (n 17) 4.

²⁴³ Wolfke (n 3) 76.