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COMMUNITY INTERESTS AND THE PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT WITHIN NATIONAL JURISDICTION

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 July 2021

Millicent McCreath Open the ORCID record for Millicent McCreath [Opens in a new window]
Millicent McCreath*
Affiliation:
PhD candidate, UNSW Sydney Faculty of Law and Justice, [email protected].
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Abstract

This article considers the under-studied question of the interests that the international community may have in the protection of the marine environment within national jurisdiction. This question is addressed on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the major documents that reveal the convictions of the international community, including UN General Assembly resolutions, major international treaties and the outcomes of multilateral conferences. The core argument is that, despite the dominance of the zonal jurisdictional regime in the law of the sea, the international community has, in fact, clearly and consistently demonstrated an interest in the protection of the marine environment within national jurisdiction. Although a finding of community interest does not affect the character of the coastal State's primary environmental protection obligations, it may have implications for the rights of third States to challenge a coastal State's failure to protect its own marine environment. Whether third States choose to exercise this right in practice remains to be seen; however, this article's findings should indicate to States that their actions and policies concerning the protection of the marine environment of their own maritime zones are a matter of concern to all States.

Keywords

public international lawcommunity interestsmarine environmentlaw of the seaUNCLOS
Type
Articles
Information
International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 70 , Issue 3 , July 2021 , pp. 569 - 603
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press for the British Institute of International and Comparative Law

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Footnotes

My research is supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship and a UNSW Scientia Scholarship. I am grateful to Rosemary Rayfuse, Natalie Klein and Jonathan Bonnitcha for their comments on earlier versions of this article.

References

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2 See for example de Grunt, LS, Ng, K and Calado, H, ‘Towards Sustainable Implementation of Maritime Spatial Planning in Europe: A Peek into the Potential of the Regional Sea Conventions Playing a Stronger Role’ (2018) 95 Marine Policy 102, 102CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrison, J, Saving the Oceans through Law: The International Legal Framework for the Protection of the Marine Environment (Oxford University Press 2017) 2Google Scholar; Group of Experts of the Regular Process, ‘The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I’ (United Nations 2016).

3 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (UNCLOS) arts 3, 33, 55, 76, 86.

4 ibid Preamble.

5 United Nations, ‘Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction’ <https://www.un.org/bbnj>. The fourth session of the intergovernmental conference scheduled for March–April 2020 was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

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13 RR Churchill and VA Lowe, The Law of the Sea (3rd edn, Manchester University Press 1999) 162.

14 UNCLOS (n 3) arts 56, 57. On the continental shelf, which extends below and beyond the EEZ to a maximum extent determined by the physical circumstances, the coastal State exercises sovereign rights over non-living resources and sedentary species: see UNCLOS arts 76, 77.

15 ibid art 58.

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22 AD Rogers and O Aburto-Oropeza, ‘Critical Habitats and Biodiversity: Inventory, Thresholds and Governance’ (World Resources Institute 2020) 24–5.

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24 Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion) [1949] ICJ Rep 174, 181–2; Simma, ‘Bilateralism and Community Interest in the Law of State Responsibility’ (n 23) 821. Even multilateral treaties were considered to be ‘bundles of bilateral rights and obligations merely tied together in a multilateral instrument’: Simma (n 23) 822.

25 C Voigt, ‘Delineating the Common Interest in International Law’ in W Benedek et al (eds), The Common Interest in International Law (Intersentia 2014) 16. See also Study Group of the International Law Commission (n 23) para 385.

26 A Paulus, ‘International Community’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2013) <https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1422>; Vaurs-Chaumette (n 6) 1023.

27 C Tams, ‘International Community’ in J d'Aspremont and S Singh (eds), Concepts for International Law: Contributions to Disciplinary Thought (Edward Elgar 2019) 505.

28 Simma, ‘Bilateralism and Community Interest in the Law of State Responsibility’ (n 23); C Chinkin, Third Parties in International Law (Oxford University Press 1993); C Tams, Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law (Cambridge University Press 2005); Tanaka (n 6); U Fastenrath et al (eds), From Bilateralism to Community Interest: Essays in Honour of Judge Bruno Simma (Oxford University Press 2011); CJ Tams and A Tzanakopoulos, ‘Barcelona Traction at 40: The ICJ as an Agent of Legal Development’ (2010) 23 LJIL 781; E Morgera, ‘Bilateralism at the Service of Community Interests? Non-Judicial Enforcement of Global Public Goods in the Context of Global Environmental Law’ (2012) 23 EJIL 743; E Benvenisti and G Nolte (eds), Community Interests Across International Law (Oxford University Press 2018).

29 R Wolfrum, ‘Identifying Community Interests in International Law: Common Spaces and Beyond’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 34; S Besson, ‘Community Interests in International Law: Whose Interests Are They and How Should We Best Identify Them?’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 36–7; W Benedek et al, ‘Introduction’ in Benedek et al (n 25) 1.

30 B Simma, ‘International Crimes: Injury and Countermeasures. Comments on Part 2 of the ILC Work on State Responsibility’ in JHH Weiler, A Cassese and M Spinedi (eds), International Crimes of State: A Critical Analysis of the ILC's Draft Article 19 on State Responsibility (Walter de Gruyter 1989) 285.

31 M Benzing, ‘Community Interests in the Procedure of International Courts and Tribunals’ (2006) 5 LPICT 369, 371; S Villalpando, ‘The Legal Dimension of the International Community: How Community Interests Are Protected in International Law’ (2010) 21 EJIL 387, 392.

32 Voigt (n 25) 17.

33 Besson (n 29) 39.

34 G Gaja, ‘Obligations Erga Omnes, International Crimes and Jus Cogens: A Tentative Analysis of Three Related Concepts’ in Weiler, Cassese and Spinedi (n 30) 151.

35 Reservations to the Convention on Genocide (Advisory Opinion) [1951] ICJ Rep 15, 23.

36 ibid.

37 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v Myanmar) (Provisional Measures Order) [2020] ICJ Rep 3, para 41.

38 Simma, ‘Bilateralism and Community Interest in the Law of State Responsibility’ (n 23); Chinkin (n 28); Tams (n 28); Tanaka (n 6); Fastenrath et al (n 28); Tams and Tzanakopoulos (n 28); Morgera (n 28); Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28); I Feichtner, ‘Community Interest’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2007) <https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1677>.

39 Schrijver (n 18) 243.

40 See RA Miller, ‘Trail Smelter Arbitration’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2007) <https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1612>.

41 ‘Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development’ (Rio de Janeiro, 3–14 June 1992) (12 August 1992) UN Doc A/CONF.151/26, vol I, Annex I: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Principle 21.

42 UNCLOS (n 3) art 192.

43 Request for Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (Advisory Opinion of 2 April 2015) ITLOS Reports 2015, 4, para 120.

44 J Charney, ‘Third State Remedies in International Law’ (1989) 10 MichJIntlL 57, 65.

45 See ‘Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar): Latest Developments’ (ICJ) <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/178>.

46 Responsibilities and Obligations of States with Respect to Activities in the Area (Advisory Opinion of 1 February 2011) ITLOS Reports 2011, 10, para 180.

47 Birnie, Boyle and Redgwell (n 6) 234; Harrison (n 2) 3, 39; Tanaka (n 6) 337.

48 RL Johnstone, Offshore Oil and Gas Development in the Arctic under International Law (Brill Nijhoff 2015) 223.

49 M Ragazzi, The Concept of International Obligations Erga Omnes (Oxford University Press 2000) 159.

50 ibid.

51 R Wolfrum, ‘Identifying Community Interests in International Law: Common Spaces and Beyond’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 34; Besson (n 29) 36–7.

52 ILC, ‘Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law, with Commentaries’ in UNGA, ‘Report of the International Law Commission on its Seventieth Session’ (2018) UN Doc A/73/10, 124, Conclusion 2.

53 ibid 125–6, Commentary to Conclusion 2.

54 ibid 140, Conclusion 10.

55 ibid 140–2, Commentary to Conclusion 10.

56 ibid 147, Conclusion 12.

57 S Talmon, ‘Determining Customary International Law: The ICJ's Methodology between Induction, Deduction and Assertion’ (2015) 26 EJIL 417, 434; D Bodansky, ‘Does Custom Have a Source?’ (2014) 108 AJIL Unbound 179, 180.

58 A Alvarez-Jiménez, ‘Methods for the Identification of Customary International Law in the International Court of Justice's Jurisprudence: 2000–2009’ (2011) 60 ICLQ 681, 689.

59 ibid.

60 Talmon (n 57) 438–9.

61 Wolfrum (n 29) 21–2.

62 W Benedek et al, ‘Conclusions: The Common Interest in International Law – Perspectives for an Undervalued Concept’ in Benedek et al (n 25) 220.

63 ibid 223.

64 B Simma, ‘From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law’ (1994) 250 Recueil des Cours 323–6.

65 J Klabbers, ‘What Role for International Organizations in the Promotion of Community Interests? Reflections on the Ideology of Functionalism’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 93.

66 ibid.

67 ibid.

68 ILC, ‘Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law, with Commentaries’ (n 52) 147–9, Commentary to Conclusion 12.

69 ibid.

70 Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (adopted 5 June 1992, entered into force 29 December 1993) 1760 UNTS 79 (CBD).

71 J Winther and M Dai et al, ‘Integrated Ocean Management’ (World Resources Institute 2020) <https://oceanpanel.org/sites/default/files/2020-09/Integrated%20Ocean%20Management.pdf> 7.

72 D Wagner et al, ‘Coral Reefs of the High Seas: Hidden Biodiversity Hotspots in Need of Protection’ (2020) 7 Frontiers in Marine Science 10.

73 See C Chinkin, ‘The Challenge of Soft Law: Development and Change in International Law’ (1989) 38 ICLQ 850; K Raustiala, ‘Form and Substance in International Agreements’ (2005) 99 AJIL 581.

74 ILC, ‘Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law, with Commentaries’ (n 52) 147–9, Commentary to Conclusion 12.

75 ML McConnell and E Gold, ‘The Modern Law of the Sea: Framework for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment?’ (1991) 23 CaseWResLRev 83, 84; Rothwell and Stephens (n 18) 338.

76 S Borg, Conservation on the High Seas: Harmonizing International Regimes for the Sustainable Use of Living Resources (Edward Elgar 2012); R Rayfuse, ‘Article 116: Right to Fish on the High Seas’ in A Proelss (ed), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary (Hart 2017) 791–803.

77 Rayfuse, ‘Article 116: Right to Fish on the High Seas’ (n 76).

78 Bering Sea Fur Seals (Great Britain v United States) (1893) 1 Moore 755.

79 R Rayfuse, ‘Article 117: Duty of States to Adopt with Respect to Their Nationals Measures for the Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas’ in Proelss (n 76) 803–17.

80 Birnie, Boyle and Redgwell (n 6) 380.

81 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (adopted 12 May 1954, entered into force 26 July 1958) 327 UNTS 3 (OILPOL).

82 Birnie, Boyle and Redgwell (n 6) 403.

83 ibid 386.

84 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (adopted 29 April 1958, entered into force 10 September 1964) 516 UNTS 206.

85 Convention on the High Seas (adopted 29 April 1958, entered into force 30 September 1962) 450 UNTS 11 arts 24, 25.

86 Convention on Fishing and the Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas (adopted 29 April 1958, entered into force 20 March 1966) 559 UNTS 285 art 1(2).

87 ibid art 2; Rayfuse, ‘Article 117: Duty of States to Adopt with Respect to Their Nationals Measures for the Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas’ (n 79).

88 Convention on the Continental Shelf (adopted 29 April 1958, entered into force 10 June 1964) 499 UNTS 311 art 5(7).

89 Joint IMCO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution, ‘Report of the First Session’ (17–21 March 1969) GESAMP 1/11.

90 ibid 4.

91 ibid Annex IV.

92 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (adopted 16 June 1972) UN Doc A/CONF48/14/Rev1 (Stockholm Declaration).

93 ibid Principles 7, 21.

94 McConnell and Gold (n 75) 85.

95 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (adopted 29 December 1972, entered into force 30 August 1975) 1046 UNTS 138 (MARPOL) art 1.

96 ibid Preamble.

97 ibid art 7(1).

98 ibid art 13.

99 J Mossop, ‘Can We Make the Oceans Greener: The Successes and Failures of UNCLOS as an Environmental Treaty’ (2018) 49 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 573, 573; Harrison (n 2) 18–20.

100 UNCLOS (n 3) Preamble.

101 UNGA, ‘Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment: Report of the Secretary-General’ (18 September 1989) UN Doc A/44/461, para 5; D Czybulka, ‘Article 192: General Obligation’ in Proelss (n 76) 1277–87.

102 UNGA, ‘Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment: Report of the Secretary-General’ (n 101) para 6.

103 ibid.

104 TTB Koh and S Jayakumar, ‘The Negotiating Process of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea’ in MH Nordquist (ed), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, vol I (Martinus Nijhoff 1985) 38–9; Y Tanaka, ‘Law of the Sea’ in S Chesterman, DM Malone and S Villalpando (eds), The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Treaties (Oxford University Press 2019) 527.

105 Koh and Jayakumar (n 104) 39. See also the UNGA Resolution calling for the convening of the UNCLOS conference, UNGA Res 2750 (XXV) C (17 December 1970): ‘Having regard to the fact that many of the present States Members of the United Nations did not take part in the previous United Nations conferences on the law of the sea’.

106 ‘Growth in United Nations Membership, 1945–Present’ (United Nations) <https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership>.

107 S Ranganathan, ‘The Law of the Sea and Natural Resources’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 129.

108 ibid.

109 AE Boyle, ‘Marine Pollution under the Law of the Sea Convention’ (1985) 79 AJIL 347, 350.

110 ibid 351.

111 ibid 352, 357–8; see also E Franckx, ‘Coastal State Jurisdiction with Respect to Marine Pollution – Some Recent Developments and Future Challenges’ (1995) 10 IJMCL 253.

112 See UNCLOS arts 61, 207, 208, 212; B Kwiatkowska, ‘Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources: Current Problems and Prospects’ (1984) 14 ODIL 315, 318–19.

113 J Harrison, ‘Actors and Institutions for the Protection of the Marine Environment’ in R Rayfuse (ed), Research Handbook on International Marine Environmental Law (Edward Elgar 2015) 59.

114 CC Joyner, ‘UN General Assembly Resolutions and International Law: Rethinking the Contemporary Dynamics of Norm-Creation’ (1981) 11 CalWIntlLJ 445.

115 UNGA Res 43/18 (1 November 1988) UN Doc A/RES/43/18.

116 ibid 15.

117 UNGA, ‘Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment: Report of the Secretary-General’ (n 101) paras 99–102.

118 UNGA Res 44/26 (20 November 1989) UN Doc A/RES/44/26, para 18; UNGA Res 45/145 (14 December 1990) UN Doc A/RES/45/145, para 19; UNGA Res 46/78 (12 December 1991) UN Doc A/RES/46/78, para 21.

119 UNGA Res 44/26 (n 118) Preamble; UNGA Res 45/145 (n 118) Preamble.

120 UNGA Res 44/225 (22 December 1989) UN Doc A/Res/44/225.

121 ‘Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development’ (n 41) Annex II: Agenda 21.

122 CBD (n 70) Preamble.

123 ibid art 4(a). NB: With respect to activities under the jurisdiction of States Parties, the CBD applies also in ABNJ.

124 ‘Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (Bonn, 19–30 May 2008) (9 October 2008) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/9/29, Decision IX/20, Preamble.

125 See ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ (UNTC) <https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-8&chapter=27>.

126 Agenda 21 (n 121) para 1.3.

127 ibid ch 17, para 17.1.

128 ibid.

129 ibid para 17.3.

130 ibid para 17.7.

131 ibid para 17.24.

132 ibid para 17.73.

133 ibid para 17.74.

134 UNGA Res 49/28 (6 December 1994) UN Doc A/RES/49/28.

135 ‘Report of the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (Nassau, 28 November - 9 December 1994) (28 February 1995) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/1/17, Decision I/2, Annex I.

136 ibid Decision I/9, Annex.

137 ‘Report of the Second Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (Jakarta, 6–17 November 1995) (30 November 1995) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/2/19, Annex I: Report of the Ministerial Segment of the Second Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Appendix: The Jakarta Ministerial Statement on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, para 14.

138 ibid Decision II/10, Annex II.

139 ibid Annex I: Report of the Ministerial Segment of the Second Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Appendix: The Jakarta Ministerial Statement on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

140 UNGA Res 50/23 (22 December 1995) UN Doc A/RES/50/23.

141 UNGA Res 51/34 (9 December 1996) UN Doc A/RES/51/34.

142 UNGA Res S/19–2 ‘Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21’ (28 June 1997) UN Doc A/RES/S-19/2.

143 ibid 36.

144 ‘Report of the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (Bratislava, 4-15 May 1998) (15 June 1998) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/4/27. The 2020 COP was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

145 ibid Decision IV/5.

146 ibid Decision IV/5, Annex: Programme of Work on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity.

147 Commission on Sustainable Development, ‘Report on the Seventh Session’ (1 May and 27 July 1998, 19–30 April 1999) Economic and Social Council, Official Records, 1999, Supplement No 9, UN Doc E/CN.17/1999/20.

148 ibid Decision 7/1.

149 ibid.

150 UNGA Res 54/33 ‘Results of the Review by the Commission on Sustainable Development of the Sectoral Theme “Oceans and Seas”: International Coordination and Cooperation’ (18 January 2000) UN Doc A/RES/54/33.

151 UNGA Res 54/31 (24 November 1999) UN Doc A/RES/54/31.

152 ‘Report of the Fifth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (22 June 2000) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/5/23.

153 ibid Decision V/3.

154 UNGA Res 55/7 (30 October 2000) UN Doc A/RES/55/7.

155 ibid 25.

156 ibid 26–9.

157 UNGA Res 56/12 (28 November 2001) UN Doc A/RES/56/12.

158 ibid 42.

159 UNGA Res 57/141 (12 December 2002) UN Doc A/RES/57/141.

160 ‘Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development’ (Johannesburg, 26 August–4 September 2002) UN Doc A/CONF.199/20, Annex: Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, para 30.

161 ibid para 32.

162 ibid para 33.

163 UNGA Res 57/141 (n 159) paras 42, 49–53.

164 ‘Report of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (27 May 2002) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/6/20.

165 ibid Decision VI/3.

166 UNGA Res 58/240 (23 December 2003) UN Doc A/RES/58/240.

167 ibid 52.

168 UNGA Res 59/24 (17 November 2004) UN Doc A/RES/59/24, para 73.

169 ‘Report of the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (13 April 2004) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/7/21.

170 ‘Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its Seventh Meeting, VII/5 Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity’ (13 April 2004) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VII/5, para 11.

171 ibid 20.

172 ibid 26.

173 ibid 29–31.

174 UNGA Res 60/30 (29 November 2005) UN Doc A/RES/60/30, para 66.

175 ibid.

176 UNGA Res 61/222 (20 December 2006) UN Doc A/RES/61/222.

177 ibid.

178 ‘Report of the Eighth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (15 June 2006) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/8/31.

179 ibid Decision VIII/21.

180 ibid.

181 ibid Decision VIII/22.

182 ibid Decision VIII/24.

183 UNGA Res 62/215 (22 December 2007) UN Doc A/RES/62/215.

184 ibid paras 95–6.

185 ibid para 99.

186 UNGA Res 63/111 (5 December 2008) UN Doc A/RES/63/111.

187 ibid para 102.

188 ibid para 111.

189 ibid para 113.

190 ‘Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (n 124).

191 ibid Decision IX/20, Annex I.

192 ibid Decision IX/20.

193 UNGA Res 64/71 (4 December 2009) UN Doc A/RES/64/71, para 127; UNGA Res 65/37 (7 December 2010) UN Doc A/RES/65/37, para 144; UNGA Res 66/231 (24 December 2011) UN Doc A/RES/66/231, para 148.

194 ‘Report of the Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (20 January 2011) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27.

195 ibid Decision X/2.

196 ibid Decision X/29.

197 ibid Decision X/29, paras 56, 70.

198 ibid Decision X/29, para 72.

199 UNGA Res 66/288 ‘The Future We Want’ (27 July 2012) UN Doc A/RES/66/288.

200 ibid Annex: The Future We Want, para 16.

201 ibid para 158.

202 ibid para 158.

203 ibid para 163.

204 ‘Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (5 December 2012) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/11/35.

205 ibid Decision XI/18.

206 ibid.

207 UNGA Res 67/78 (11 December 2012) UN Doc A/RES/67/78; UNGA Res 68/70 (9 December 2013) UN Doc A/RES/68/70; UNGA Res 69/245 (29 December 2014) UN Doc A/RES/69/245.

208 UNGA Res 67/78 (n 207) para 154.

209 ibid para 162; UNGA Res 68/70 (n 207) para 174; UNGA Res 69/245 (n 207) para 190; UNGA Res 70/235 (23 December 2015) UN Doc A/RES/70/235, para 199; UNGA Res 71/257 (23 December 2016) UN Doc A/RES/71/257, para 216; UNGA Res 72/73 (5 December 2017) UN Doc A/RES/72/73, para 221; UNGA Res 73/124 (11 December 2018) UN Doc A/RES/73/124, para 232; UNGA Res 74/19 (10 December 2019) UN Doc A/RES/74/19, para 242; UNGA Res 75/239 (31 December 2020) UN Doc A/RES/75/239, para 244.

210 UNGA Res 67/78 (n 207) para 164; UNGA Res 68/70 (n 207) para 176; UNGA Res 69/245 (n 207) para 192; UNGA Res 70/235 (n 209) para 201; UNGA Res 71/257 (n 209) para 219; UNGA Res 72/73 (n 209) para 224; UNGA Res 73/124 (n 209) para 236; UNGA Res 74/19 (n 209) para 246; UNGA Res 75/239 (n 209) para 248.

211 ‘Report of the Twelfth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (17 October 2014) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/12/29.

212 ibid Decision XII/22, paras 5, 7, 8, 11.

213 ibid Decision XII/23, Annex.

214 ibid Decision XII/23, Annex, para 8.

215 UNGA Res 70/1 ‘Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ (25 September 2015) UN Doc A/RES/70/1.

216 ibid Goal 14.1.

217 ibid Goal 14.

218 UNGA Res 70/235 (n 209); UNGA Res 71/257 (n 209); UNGA Res 72/73 (n 209); UNGA Res 73/124 (n 209); UNGA Res 74/19 (n 209); UNGA Res 75/239 (n 209).

219 ‘Report of the Thirteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (17 December 2016) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/13/25, Decision XIII/9.

220 ibid Decision XIII/10.

221 ibid Decision XIII/11.

222 ibid Decision XIII/12.

223 ibid Decision XIII/9, para 3.

224 ibid Decision XIII/10, para 6.

225 ibid Decision XIII/11, para 3.

226 UNGA Res 71/312 ‘Our Ocean, Our Future: Call for Action’ (6 July 2017) UN Doc A/RES/71/312.

227 ibid 13.

228 ‘Report of the Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (20 March 2019) UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/14/14, Decision 14/10, para 1.

229 UNGA Res 72/73 (n 209) Preamble; UNGA Res 73/124 (n 209) Preamble; UNGA Res 74/19 (n 209) Preamble; UNGA Res 75/239 (n 209) Preamble.

230 UNGA Res 75/239 (n 209).

231 ibid para 245.

232 Besson (n 29) 38; International Law Commission, ‘Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts’ art 48(1) (see Annex to UNGA Res 56/83 ‘Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts’ (12 December 2001) UN Doc A/RES/56/83).

233 D Azaria, ‘Community Interest Obligations in International Energy Law’ in Benvenisti and Nolte (n 28) 297–8.

234 See WCG Burns, ‘Potential Causes of Action for Climate Change Damages in International Fora: The Law of the Sea Convention’ (2006) 2(1) McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy 27, 50–1.

235 A Peters, ‘International Dispute Settlement: A Network of Cooperational Duties’ (2003) 14(1) EJIL 1, 4; JG Merrills, International Dispute Settlement (6th edn, Cambridge University Press 2017) 2.

236 Tams (n 28) 179–92.

237 Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v Senegal) [2012] ICJ Rep 422.

238 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v Myanmar) (n 37) paras 41–2.

239 Application Instituting Proceedings and Request for Provisional Measures (The Gambia v Myanmar) (11 November 2019) paras 15, 20, 123–7 <https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/178/178-20191111-APP-01-00-EN.pdf>.

240 ‘South Korean Eyes Legal Action to Stop Water Release from Fukushima Plant’ Kyodo News (14 April 2021) <https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2021/04/4cdef5ddc6ac-breaking-news-s-korea-mulls-taking-fukushima-water-release-to-intl-court.html>; AR Darmawan, ‘Toxic Reaction to Japan's Fukushima Water Dump’ The Lowy Institute Interpreter (22 April 2021) <https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/toxic-reaction-japan-s-fukushima-water-dump>.

241 ‘South Korean Experts Dismiss Worries over Treated Fukushima Water’ The Japan Times (27 April 2021) <https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2021/04/27/national/south-korea-fukushima-water/>; J McCurry, ‘Fukushima: Japan Announces It Will Dump Contaminated Water into Sea’ The Guardian (13 April 2021) <https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/13/fukushima-japan-to-start-dumping-contaminated-water-pacific-ocean>.