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² Stuyt, AM, Survey of International Arbitrations 1794–1938 (Martinus Nijhoff 1939)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Crawford, J, ‘Continuity and Discontinuity in International Dispute Settlement: An Inaugural Lecture’ (2010) 1 JIDS 3Google Scholar.

³ Charter of the United Nations (signed 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS 16, art 33.

⁴ McLachlan, C, Lis Pendens in International Litigation (Martinus Nijhoff 2009) Ch IVCrossRefGoogle Scholar; Romano, CPR, ‘The Proliferation of International Judicial Bodies: The Pieces of the Puzzle’ (1999) 31 NYUJILP 709Google Scholar.

⁵ H Krieger and G Nolte, ‘The International Rule of Law – Rise or Decline? Points of Departure’ (2016) KFG Working Paper Series, No 1, <http://www.kfg-intlaw.de/Publications/working_papers.php?ID=1>.

⁶ Alter, K, The New Terrain of International Law (Princeton University Press 2014)Google Scholar.

⁷ Dispute Settlement Understanding, Annex 2 to Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organisation (signed 15 April 1994, entered into force 1 January 2002) 1869 UNTS 401.

⁸ United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (signed 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 396, Annex VI.

⁹ Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (signed 17 July 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002) 2187 UNTS 90.

¹⁰ Convention on the Settlement of Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention) (signed 18 March 1965, entered into force 14 October 1966) 575 UNTS 159.

¹¹ The first arbitration award under an investment treaty was Asian Agricultural Products Ltd v Sri Lanka (Award) ICSID Case No ARB/87/3, 4 ICSID Rep 245 (1990); McLachlan, C, Shore, L and Weiniger, M, International Investment Arbitration: Substantive Principles (2nd edn, Oxford University Press, 2017) [1.06]Google Scholar.

¹² Paris Agreement (signed 12 December 2015, entered into force 4 November 2016) C.N. 63.2016, TREATIES-XXVII.7.d; United States notice of intent to withdraw (4 August 2017) available at: <https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2017-08-04/note-correspondents-paris-climate-agreement>.

¹³ Hull, I, ‘Anything Can Be Rescinded’ (2018) 40(2) London Review of Books 25, 26Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Crawford, J, ‘The Current Political Discourse Concerning International Law’ (2018) 81 MLR 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Goldsmith, J and Posner, E, The Limits of International Law (Oxford University Press, 2007)Google Scholar. For a broad critique of these approaches see Ohlin, JD, The Assault on International Law (Oxford University Press 2015)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Franck, T, ‘Is Anything “Left” In International Law?’ (2005) 1 Unbound: Harvard Journal of the Legal Left 59, 62Google Scholar.

¹⁷ See (n 5) 6.

¹⁸ This list is not exhaustive. See further Pauwelyn, J and Hamilton, R, ‘Exit from International Tribunals’ (2018) 9 JIDS 679Google Scholar; Soley, X and Steiniger, S, ‘Parting Ways or Lashing back? Withdrawals, Backlash and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (2018) 14 International Journal of Law in Context 237CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹ Treaty on European Union (TEU) (signed 7 February 1992, entered into force 1 November 1993) 1757 UNTS 3, [2010] OJ C 83/01, art 50(1).

²⁰ Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Hansard, HC Deb vol 613, col 23 (11 July 2016).

²¹ R (ex p Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2016] EWHC 2768 (Admin), [2018] AC 61.

²² J Slack, ‘Enemies of the People’ Daily Mail (4 November 2016).

²³ R (ex p Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2017] UKSC 5, [2018] AC 61; as to which see McLachlan, C, ‘The Foreign Relations Power in the Supreme Court’ (2018) 134 LQR 380Google Scholar.

²⁴ Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union OJ 2000/C 364/01 (18 December 2000).

²⁵ ‘Contempt of Court’ The Economist (2 March 2011).

²⁶ At the time of writing, this form remains unclear. The draft Agreement on the withdrawal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Agency (14 November 2018) TF (2018) 55, art 171, provides for the establishment of an arbitration panel to resolve disputes between the Parties under the Agreement. Provision is made for the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration to administer the arbitration. Art 174 provides for the arbitral panel to refer to the CJEU any questions of EU law that arise.

²⁷ Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) (signed 4 November 1950, entered into force 3 September 1953) 213 UNTS 221.

²⁸ For an analysis of the Press coverage see: J Henley, ‘Meddler or Miracle? Inside a Tory Bête Noire: The European Court of Human Rights is a Whipping Boy for the UK Right. But Why?’ The Guardian (23 December 2013).

²⁹ Saul, M, Follesdal, A and Ulfstein, G (eds), The International Human Rights Judiciary and National Parliaments: Europe and Beyond (Studies on Human Rights Conventions) (Cambridge University Press 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bowring, B, ‘Russia's Cases in the ECtHR and the Question of Implementation’ in Mälksoo, L and Benedek, W (eds), Russia and the European Court of Human Rights (Cambridge University Press 2017)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2) (App No 74025/01, 6 October 2005) 16 BHRC 409.

³¹ Al-Skeini v United Kingdom (App No 55721/07, 7 July 2011) 147 ILR 181 (ECtHR GC).

³² Al-Jedda v United Kingdom (App No 27021/08, 7 July 2011) 147 ILR 107 (ECtHR GC).

³³ Conservative and Unionist Party, ‘Forward Together: Our Plan for a Stronger Britain and a Prosperous Future’ (2017) 37.

³⁴ Malcolm, N (ed), Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan (Oxford University Press 2014)Google Scholar.

³⁵ Malcolm, N, Human Rights and Political Wrongs: A New Approach to Human Rights Law (Policy Exchange 2017)Google Scholar.

³⁶ ibid 137.

³⁷ ibid 139–42.

³⁸ Simpson, AW Brian, Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford University Press 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Lauterpacht, H, An International Bill of the Rights of Man (Columbia University Press, NY 1945)Google Scholar and see further Lauterpacht, H, ‘The Proposed European Court of Human Rights’ (1949) 35 Transactions of the Grotius Society 25Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ W Churchill, ‘Address to the Congress of Europe’ (7 May 1948, The Hague) <https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/1999/1/1/58118da1-af22-48c0-bc88-93cda974f42c/publishable_en.pdf>.

⁴¹ Lord Phillips, ‘Strasbourg Overreach and ECHR Membership’ (7 March 2018) <https://judicialpowerproject.org.uk/lord-phillips-strasbourg-overreach-and-echr-membership>.

⁴² The Philippines also notified its withdrawal from the Rome Statute on 17 March 2018: Depository Notification C.N.138.2018.TREATIES-XVIII.10. At the time of writing, the only African State that has withdrawn is Burundi, with effect from 27 October 2017: C.N.805.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10. Both South Africa and The Gambia, which had notified withdrawal, subsequently withdrew their notices.

⁴³ Ssenyonjo, M, ‘State Withdrawals from the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: South Africa, Burundi, and The Gambia’ in Jalloh, C and Bantekas, I (eds), The International Criminal Court and Africa (Oxford University Press 2017) Ch 9Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Election of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court/Addendum (ICC-ASP/10/38, 12 December 2011).

⁴⁵ UNSC Res 1593 (31 March 2005), UN Doc S/RES/1593 (2005), adopted with 11 votes in favour (including Tanzania and Benin), no votes against and 4 abstentions (including Algeria).

⁴⁶ UNSC Res 1970 (26 February 2011), UN Doc S/RES/1970 (2011), adopted unanimously (including Gabon, Nigeria and South Africa).

⁴⁷ For details see: <https://www.icc-cpi.int/#>.

⁴⁸ Depository Notification C.N.805.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10 (28 October 2016).

⁴⁹ Depositary Notification C.N.786.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10 (19 October 2016).

⁵⁰ Depository Notification C.N.862.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10 (10 October 2016).

⁵¹ African Union, ‘Withdrawal Strategy Document – Draft 2’ (12 January 2017) 2 <https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/icc_withdrawal_strategy_jan._2017.pdf>.

⁵² Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the Union, ‘Decision on the International Criminal Court’, (Doc EX.CL/1006(XXX), 30–31 January 2017, Addis Ababa) 2. Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Tunisia and Zambia entered reservations, while Liberia entered reservations specifically to the study on the Withdrawal Strategy.

⁵³ The Assembly's Decision on the International Criminal Court of January 2018 omits mention of collective withdrawal; focuses on the strengthening of international criminal justice in Africa and on clarification of the relationship between art 27 (irrelevance of official capacity) and art 98 (cooperation with respect to immunity and consent to surrender) of the Rome Statute: African Union 30th Sess 28–29 January 2018, Assembly/AU/Dec.672(XXX).

⁵⁴ Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (signed Malabo, 27 June 2014). Art 46A bis of the Statute of the Court confers immunity on serving African Union Heads of State.

⁵⁵ Simpson, G, ‘Human Rights with a Vengeance: One Hundred Years of Retributive Humanitarianism’ (2015) 33 AustYBIL 1, 14Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Aeschylus, The Oresteia (Burian, P and Shapiro, A (eds and trans), Oxford University Press 2011Google Scholar) ‘Eumenides’ ll 570–8.

⁵⁷ UNCTAD, ‘Investment Policy Monitor’ Issue 20 (December 2018).

⁵⁸ UNCTAD ‘Investor-state Dispute Settlement: Review of Developments in 2017’ (June 2018).

⁵⁹ Comprehensive and Progressive Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (signed 8 March 2018, entered into force 30 December 2018).

⁶⁰ Art 71 ICSID Convention provides: ‘Any Contracting State may denounce this Convention by written notice to the depositary of this Convention. The denunciation shall take effect six months after receipt of such notice.’

⁶¹ ICSID, ‘Database of ICSID Member States’ <https://icsid.worldbank.org/en/Pages/about/Database-of-Member-States.aspx> notes the withdrawal of: Bolivia with effect from 3 November 2007; Ecuador with effect from 7 January 2010; and Venezuela with effect from 25 July 2012.

⁶² Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York Convention) (signed 10 June 1958, entered into force 7 June 1959) 330 UNTS 38.

⁶³ Salacuse, J, The Law of Investment Treaties (Oxford University Press 2010) 352CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ See generally T Voon and AD Mitchell, ‘Denunciation, Termination and Survival: The Interplay of Treaty Law and International Investment Law’ (2016) 31 ICSID Rev-FILJ 413. The States notifying termination include Indonesia, India and South Africa. For details of treaties terminated see <https://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/IIA>.

⁶⁵ Roberts, A, ‘Incremental, Systemic, and Paradigmatic Reform of Investor–State Arbitration’ (2018) 112 AJIL 410CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁶ See eg the draft India Model BIT 2015, art 15(1) of which would require the exhaustion of local remedies as a precondition of resort to international arbitration. <https://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/Download/TreatyFile/3560>; A Rajput, ‘Protection of Foreign Investment in India and International Rule of Law: Rise or Decline?’ (2017) KFG Working Paper Series No 10 <http://www.kfg-intlaw.de/Publications/working_papers.php?ID=1>.

⁶⁷ A Swanson, ‘Trump's Tough Talk on Nafta Raises Prospects of Pact's Demise’ The New York Times (11 October 2017); G Thrush, ‘Trump Says He Plans to Withdraw From Nafta’ The New York Times (2 December 2018).

⁶⁸ Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement (signed 30 November 2018, not yet in force) art 14.2(4) and Annex 14-C – 14-E.

⁶⁹ Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, as amended and renamed by the Treaty of Lisbon (signed 13 December 2007, entered into force 1 December 2009), arts 3(1), 206 and 207 (Treaty of Lisbon).

⁷⁰ Case C-284/16 Slovak Republic v Achmea ECLI:EU:C:2018:158.

⁷¹ ‘Declaration of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States of 15 January 2019 on the Legal Consequences of the Judgment of the Court of the Justice in Achmea and on Investment Protection in the European Union’ available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/190117-bilateral-investment-treaties_en.pdf>.

⁷² Canada–EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) (signed 30 October 2016, entered into force provisionally 21 September 2017) art 8.27; Final Text of EU–Vietnam Investment Protection Agreement (not yet signed) Ch 3, arts 3.38–3.57, <http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index.cfm?id=1437>.

⁷³ C Malmström (European Commissioner for Trade), ‘Reforming Investment Dispute Settlement’ (27 February 2017) <http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2017/february/tradoc_155393.pdf>.

⁷⁴ EU Council, ‘Negotiating Directives for a Convention Establishing a Multilateral Court for the Settlement of Investment Disputes’ (20 March 2018), 12981/17 ADD 1 DCL 1.

⁷⁵ ibid, [4]; UNCITRAL, ‘Report of Working Group III (Investor–State Dispute Settlement Reform) on the Work of Its Thirty-Fifth Session’ (New York, 23–27 April 2018) UN Doc A/CN.9/935.

⁷⁶ Recent examples include Arctic Sunrise (The Netherlands v Russia) PCA Case No 2014-2; South China Sea (Philippines v China) PCA Case No 2013-19; Arbitration under the Arbitration Agreement between Croatia and Slovenia (Croatia v Slovenia) PCA No Case 2012-04.

⁷⁷ Keith, KJ, ‘Reflections on the South China Sea Arbitration Rulings’ (2017) 42 NZIR 5, 7Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Relocation of the United States Embassy to Jerusalem (Palestine v United States of America) ICJ General List No 176 (Order, 15 November 2018) 2.

⁷⁹ See eg UNCLOS, arts 288(4) and 296 and Annex VII art 9.

⁸⁰ Keith (n 77) 7–8.

⁸¹ ‘United States Blocks Reappointment of WTO Appellate Body Member’ (2016) 110 AJIL 573; WTO Secretariat's Information and External Relations Division, WTO Dispute Settlement Body, Summary of Meeting (22 June 2018) <https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news18_e/dsb_22jun18_e.htm>.

⁸² A Wolff, ‘The Rule of Law in an Age of Conflict’ (29 June 2018) 9–111 <https://www.wti.org/media/filer_public/fd/08/fd087b42-ac5b-4df8-9e91-b76220c72953/bern_june_29_2018_final_july_1_corrected.pdf>.

⁸³ Art 1 ECHR.

⁸⁴ Art 27(1) Rome Statute.

⁸⁵ ibid, art 28.

⁸⁶ ibid, art 27(2).

⁸⁷ Bogdandy, A von and Venzke, I, ‘In Whose Name? An Investigation of International Courts’ Public Authority and Its Democratic Justification’ (2012) 23 EJIL 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁸ Bellamy, R, ‘The Democratic Legitimacy of International Human Rights Conventions: Political Constitutionalism and the European Convention on Human Rights’ (2014) 25 EJIL 1019CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁹ Müller, J-W, What is Populism? (Penguin 2017) 95–6Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Section V.A. below.

⁹¹ Baroness O'Neill, ‘The Importance of Justifying Rights’ (6 March 2018) <https://judicialpowerproject.org.uk/baroness-oneill-the-importance-of-justifying-rights/> (original emphasis).

⁹² BVerfG 2 BvE 2/08 (30 June 2009) [221].

⁹³ China, ‘Position Paper of the People's Republic of China on the Matter of Jurisdiction in the South China Sea Arbitration Initiated by the Republic of the Philippines’ (7 December 2014) (2018) 17 ChineseJIL 207, 655.

⁹⁴ African Union, ‘Withdrawal Strategy Document’ (Draft 2, 12 January 2017) [8](e) <https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/icc_withdrawal_strategy_jan._2017.pdf>.

⁹⁵ Prosecutor v Al-Bashir ICC Case No ICC-02/05-01/09 (Appeals Chamber, Judgment, 6 May 2019).

⁹⁶ The SS Wimbledon (1923) PCIJ Series A No 1, 25

⁹⁷ BVerfG 2 BvE 2/08 (30 June 2009) para 220.

⁹⁸ ibid 231.

⁹⁹ UNCITRAL, ‘Report of Working Group III (Investor-State Dispute Settlement Reform) on the Work of Its Thirty-Fifth Session’ (New York, 23–27 April 2018) UN Doc A/CN.9/935. On the application of the equality principle to investment arbitration see McLachlan, C, ‘Equality of the Parties before International Investment Tribunals’ Session of The Hague, Preparatory Works (2019) 79 Annuaire de l’Institut de Droit International 409Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Malcolm, N, Human Rights and Political Wrongs: A New Approach to Human Rights Law (Policy Exchange 2017)Google Scholar; cf the (earlier) response of the British President of the ECtHR to criticism of this kind: N Bratza, ‘The Relationship between the UK Courts and Strasbourg’ (2011) 5 EHRLR 505 and (more recently) D Giannopoulos, ‘What Has the European Convention on Human Rights Ever Done for the UK?’ (2019) EHRLR 1; Amos, M, ‘The Value of the European Court of Human Rights to the United Kingdom’ (2017) 28 EJIL 763CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰¹ For a general discussion of these challenges see Nolte, G, ‘Treaties and Their Practice – Symptoms of Their Rise or Decline’ (2018) 392 Recueil des Cours 205, 284–7Google Scholar.

¹⁰² International Law Commission, Model Rules on Arbitral Procedure art 35(a) [1958] II YBILC 83, 86; ICSID Convention art 52(1)(b); Cheng, B, General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribunals (Cambridge University Press 1953, repr 2006) 261Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ See, in the case of the ICSID Convention: Compañía de Aguas del Aconquija SA v Vivendi Universal v Argentina (Decision on Annulment) ICSID Case No ARB/97/3 (2002) 6 ICSID Rep 340, [86]; Soufraki v United Arab Emirates (Decision on Annulment) ICSID Case No ARB/02/7 (2007); Schreuer, C et al. , The ICSID Convention: A Commentary (2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, 2009) 947CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ The Betsey (1794) 4 Int Adj MS 179, 193.

¹⁰⁵ Continental Shelf (Libya v Malta) [1985] ICJ Rep 23, [19].

¹⁰⁶ Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (signed 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331, art 26.

¹⁰⁷ The Lotus (France v Turkey) [1927] PCIJ Ser A No 9, 18.

¹⁰⁸ Monetary Gold removed from Rome in 1943 (Italy v France) [1954] ICJ Rep 19, 20.

¹⁰⁹ L Helfer, ‘Exiting Treaties’ (2005) 91 VaLRev 1579.

¹¹⁰ Covenant of the League of Nations (signed 28 June 1919, entered into force 10 January 1920) 225 Con TS 195, art 1(3).

¹¹¹ But see the Interpretative Declaration adopted at the UN founding conference concerning the right of withdrawal in the context of amendments to the Charter: United Nations Conference on International Organization I, 616, 631.

¹¹² T Christakis, ‘Article 56’ and Prost, Mario, ‘Article 65’ in Corten, O and Klein, P (eds), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary (Oxford University Press 2011) 1251, 1483Google Scholar.

¹¹³ Art 50(3) TEU.

¹¹⁴ Art 68 VCLT.

¹¹⁵ Case 621/18 Wightman v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union Case [2018] ECLI:EU:C:2018:999; Opinion of AG-Campos Sánchez-Bordona.

¹¹⁶ ibid, [64].

¹¹⁷ ibid, [66].

¹¹⁸ ibid, [67].

¹¹⁹ ibid, [74].

¹²⁰ See eg art LVI Pact of Bogota (signed 30 April 1948, entered into force 6 May 1949) 30 UNTS 55, considered in Delimitation of the Continental Shelf (Nicaragua v Colombia) (Preliminary Objections) [2006] ICJ Rep 100, 115, [31]; art 127 Rome Statute, considered in Burundi (Decision on Authorization of an Investigation) ICC-01/17-X (Pre-Trial Chamber, 25 October 2017) [24]–[26].

¹²¹ Where the dispute is in relation to the termination of a treaty for conflict with a peremptory norm under arts 53 or 64 VCLT, a party may submit the dispute to the ICJ for decision unless the parties by common consent submit the dispute to arbitration: art 66(a).

¹²² International Law Commission, ‘Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties with Commentaries’ [1966] II YBILC, 187, 262.

¹²³ Idem.

¹²⁴ McNair, A, The Law of Treaties (Clarendon Press 1961) 493–4Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt (Advisory Opinion) [1980] ICJ Rep 73, 94, [46].

¹²⁶ ibid 96, [49].

¹²⁷ Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility) [1984] ICJ Rep 392.

¹²⁸ Ibid 420, [63].

¹²⁹ Gabčikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Rep 7.

¹³⁰ ibid 66, [109].

¹³¹ Letter of Submittal from Rogers, US Secretary of State to President Nixon (19 October 1971) 65 Dept of State Bull 684, 687–8; US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings on Treaty Termination, 96th Congress [1979] Digest of United States Practice in International Law 769; American Law Institute, Restatement 4th Foreign Relations Law (Tentative Draft No 2, 20 March 2017) Part III ‘Status of Treaties in US Law,’ 129, section 313 Reporters’ Note 1.

¹³² The doubts expressed by the ECJ as to the customary status of art 65 relate to the specific notice periods there specified, not the principle of notice: Case C-162/96 A Racke & Co v Hauptzollamt Mainz Case C-162/96 [1998] ECR I-3688, [58]–[59]; [1998] ECR I-3659 Opinion of AG Jacobs, [96].

¹³³ Art 56(1)(b) VCLT.

¹³⁴ International Law Commission, Second Report on the Law of Treaties (Waldock, Rapporteur) [1963] II YBILC 64, 67, 71.

¹³⁵ International Law Commission, ‘Summary Records of the Fifteenth Session, 6 May–12 July 1963’ [1963] I YBILC 99, 100 (Castrén), 101 (Amado), 101–2 (Verdross), 102 (Bartoš), 106 (Jiménez de Aréchaga).

¹³⁶ Aust, A, Modern Treaty Law and Practice (3rd edn, Cambridge University Press 2013) 257CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Giegerich, T ‘Article 56’ in Dörr, O and Schmalenbach, K (eds), Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (2nd edn, Springer 2018) 1055, [45]Google Scholar.

¹³⁷ Optional Protocol to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes (signed 18 April 1961, entered into force 24 April 1964) 500 UNTS 241; Optional Protocol to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes (signed 24 April 1963, entered into force 19 March 1967) 596 UNTS 487. This practice is cited by Aust, ibid, n 54 and by Dörr and Schmalenbach, ibid, 1054–5.

¹³⁸ Arts I and II.

¹³⁹ See United Nations Treaty Collection, Multilateral Treaties deposited with the Secretary General, Status of Treaties, Ch.III.8, note 1.

¹⁴⁰ See United Nations Treaty Collection, Multilateral Treaties deposited with the Secretary General, Status of Treaties, Ch III.5, note 10.

¹⁴¹ Consular Relations Protocol: LaGrand (Germany v United States of America) [2001] ICJ Rep 466; Avena (Mexico v United States of America) [2004] ICJ Rep 12; Diplomatic Relations Protocol: Relocation of the United States Embassy to Jerusalem (Palestine v United States of America) (Application instituting proceedings, 28 September 2018).

¹⁴² Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v Guatemala) (Preliminary Objections) [1953] ICJ Rep 111, 123; Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v India) (Preliminary Objections) [1957] ICJ Rep 125; Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium), [2002] ICJ Rep 3; Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v United Kingdom), (Preliminary Objections) [1998] ICJ Rep 9, [38]; Delimitation of the Continental Shelf (Nicaragua v Colombia) (Preliminary Objections) [2016] ICJ Rep 100, 115, [31].

¹⁴³ Art 70(1)(b) VCLT.

¹⁴⁴ Art 36(1) Statute of the International Court of Justice (signed 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 59 Stat 1055, UKTS 67 (1946).

¹⁴⁵ Helfer, L, ‘Exiting Treaties’ (2005) 91 VaLRev 1579, 1595Google Scholar, citing eg instances of withdrawal and reaccession to membership of international organizations designed in part to prompt their reform and accountability.

¹⁴⁶ ibid 1640–2.

¹⁴⁷ ibid 1633–9.

¹⁴⁸ ibid 1633–6, 1645–7.

¹⁴⁹ African Union, ‘Withdrawal Strategy Document’ (Draft 2, 12 January 2017) [19] <https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/icc_withdrawal_strategy_jan._2017.pdf>.

¹⁵⁰ See eg Remarks by President Trump to the 73rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York (25 September 2018): ‘We will never surrender America's sovereignty to an unelected, unaccountable, global bureaucracy’ UN Doc A/73/PV.6, 17.

¹⁵¹ UN Secretary-General, ‘Delivering Justice: Programme of Action to Strengthen the Rule of Law at the National and International Levels’ UN Doc A/66/749 (16 March 2012), [2]: ‘The United Nations defines the rule of law as a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards.’ (Emphasis added and internal references omitted.)

¹⁵² Alter, K, Gathii, J and Helfer, L, ‘Backlash Against International Courts In West, East and Southern Africa: Causes and Consequences’ (2016) 27 EJIL 293CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵³ Manneh v The Gambia ECW/CCJ/JUD/03/08, IHRL 3114 (5 June 2008).

¹⁵⁴ Nyong'o v A G Kenya [2007] EACJ 6, Ref No 1 of 2006 (30 March 2007).

¹⁵⁵ Campbell v Zimbabwe Case No SADC (T) 2/2007 (28 November 2008) 138 ILR 385.

¹⁵⁶ McLachlan, C, Shore, L and Weiniger, M, International Investment Arbitration; Substantive Principles (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2017) [7.153]–[7.226]Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁷ Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2) (App No 74025/01, 6 October 2005) 16 BHRC 409; Sejdić v Bosnia and Herzegovina (App Nos 27996/06 and 34836/06, 22 December 2009, GC).

¹⁵⁸ Shany, Y, Assessing the Effectiveness of International Courts (Oxford University Press 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ Alter (n 6). But see now the potential effect of the decision of the South African Constitutional Court in Law Society of South Africa v President of the Republic of South Africa [2018] ZACC 51, [2018] 2 All SA 806, discussed below at (n 189).

¹⁶⁰ See, eg, the role of the Committee of Ministers in securing compliance with the ECtHR's judgment in Mammadov v Azerbaijan (App No 15172/13, 22 May 2014). Ilgar Mammadov was released on 13 August 2018 following the Committee's resolution (CM/ResDH(2017)429, 5 December 2017) to refer to the Court under art 46(4) ECHR the question whether Azerbaijan had failed to fulfil its obligation to comply with the judgment.

¹⁶¹ The DSB operates by way of consensus. This has made its ability to appoint new members to the AB, and thus the survival of the AB and the system of dispute settlement that it supports, vulnerable to the blocking of appointments by the United States: Dispute Settlement Body, Summary of Meeting (22 June 2018) <https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news18_e/dsb_22jun18_e.htm>; A Wolff, ‘The Rule of Law in an Age of Conflict’ (29 June 2018) 9–111 <https://www.wti.org/media/filer_public/fd/08/fd087b42-ac5b-4df8-9e91-b76220c72953/bern_june_29_2018_final_july_1_corrected.pdf>.

¹⁶² Art 112 Rome Statute.

¹⁶³ ICSID, ‘Proposals for Amendment of the ICSID Rules’ (3 vols, 2 August 2018).

¹⁶⁴ On the impasse in appointments to the WTO Appellate Body see E-U Petersmann, ‘WTO Diplomats – Stand up to US Power Politics’ Financial Times (16 October 2018); Wolff (n 161).

¹⁶⁵ Art 35(1) ECHR; and see also Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (signed 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171, art 5(2)(b).

¹⁶⁶ H Lauterpacht, ‘The Proposed European Court of Human Rights’ (1949) 35 Transactions of the Grotius Society 25, 33. The implications of this concept are explored in Bjorge, E, Domestic Application of the ECHR: Courts as Faithful Trustees (Oxford University Press 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ Lauterpacht ibid, 35.

¹⁶⁸ Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (signed 17 July 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002) 2187 UNTS 90, art 17.

¹⁶⁹ cf the decisions of the US Supreme Court on the rights of foreign nationals on Death Row to consular assistance in light of the judgments of the ICJ: Breard v Greene 523 US 371, 118 S Ct 1352 (1998); Medellin v Dretke 544 US 660 (2005); Sanchez-Llamas v Oregon 548 US 331, 126 S Ct 2669 (2006); Medellin v Texas 128 S Ct 1346 (2008), discussed C McLachlan, ‘Lis Pendens in International Litigation’ (2008) 336 Recueil des Cours 199, 471–89.

¹⁷⁰ McLachlan ibid, 489–99.

¹⁷¹ Thomas v Baptiste [2000] 2 AC 1, 23.

¹⁷² Idem.

¹⁷³ [2000] 2 AC 1, 20 (PC), but cf Lord Goff and Lord Hobhouse dissenting, 31–3 and Higgs v Minister of National Security [2000] 2 AC 228 (PC, Bahamas, Hoffmann, Hobhouse and Henry; Steyn and Cooke dissenting).

¹⁷⁴ Symposium on Treaty Exit at the Interface of Domestic and International Law (2017) 111 AJIL Unbound 425–66Google Scholar; Verdier, P-H and Versteeg, M, ‘Separation of Powers, Treaty-Making, and Treaty Withdrawal: A Global Survey’ in Bradley, C (ed), Oxford Handbook of Comparative Foreign Relations Law (Oxford University Press 2019) Ch 8Google Scholar; L Helfer, ‘Treaty Exit and Intra-Branch Conflict at the Interface of International and Domestic Law’ in Bradley ibid Ch 20.

¹⁷⁵ Under the US Constitution the established doctrine is that, despite the requirement of Senate advice and consent for the conclusion of treaties, withdrawal is the prerogative of the President acting unilaterally: American Law Institute, Restatement 4th Foreign Relations Law (Tentative Draft No 2, 20 March 2017) Part III ‘Status of Treaties in US Law,’ 129, section 313 Reporters’ Notes 2–3 for a full review of the historical practice. The Supreme Court has ruled the question of the extent of such a power vis-à-vis the legislative branch to be non-justiciable: Goldwater v Carter 444 US 996 (1979). In Germany, the established position is that withdrawal from treaties does not require the prior approval of the Bundestag: BVerfGE 68, 1 (85–86); BVerfGE 141, 1 (23, para 55), but this is increasingly questioned in doctrine: Lange, F, ‘Art. 59 Abs. 2 S. 1 GG im Lichte von Brexit und IStGH-Austritt: Zur Parlamentarisierung der Kündigung völkerrechtlicher Verträge’ (2017) 142 Archiv des öffentlichen Rechts 442CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hettche, J, Die Beteiligung der Legislative bei Vorbehalten zu und Kündigung von völkerrechtlichen Verträgen (Mohr Siebeck 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; A Paulus and J-H Hinselmann, ‘International Integration and Its Counter-Limits: A German Constitutional Perspective’ in Bradley ibid, Ch 23.

¹⁷⁶ Verdier and Versteeg (n 174) present the results of a global survey of constitutions showing that the number of States in which the executive can withdraw unilaterally has declined since the 1970s from a high of 89 per cent to the current level of 72 per cent. They point out that in a number of other States, provision for Parliamentary approval for withdrawal is made by statute.

¹⁷⁷ CACJ 105-02-26-03-2010.

¹⁷⁸ Supreme Court of Justice (Full Chamber) 2 February 2012, available at: <https://vlex.com.pa/vid/accion-inconstitucionalidad-sala-pleno-375091942>.

¹⁷⁹ Art 4 Constitution of Panama.

¹⁸⁰ Treaty on the Establishment of the Central American Parliament (signed 2 October 1987, entered into force 1 May 1990) 1777 UNTS 172. Art 30 provided for amendment of the Treaty, when unanimously adopted by the Member States. It excluded the possibility of reservations.

¹⁸¹ R (ex p Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2017] UKSC 5, [2018] AC 61.

¹⁸² Treaty on European Union (signed 7 February 1992, entered into force 1 November 1993) 1757 UNTS 3, [2010] OJ C 83/01, art 50(1).

¹⁸³ ibid, [61].

¹⁸⁴ Democratic Alliance v Minister of International Relations and Cooperation [2017] 2 All SA 123, [2017] 5 LRC 69.

¹⁸⁵ ibid, [44].

¹⁸⁶ ibid, [53].

¹⁸⁷ ibid, [56].

¹⁸⁸ See eg the discussion in Lange, Hettche and Paulus and Hinselmann (n 175).

¹⁸⁹ Law Society of South Africa v President of the Republic of South Africa [2018] ZACC 51, [2018] 2 All SA 806.

¹⁹⁰ Art 36, Treaty of the Southern African Development Community (signed 17 August 1992, entered into force 5 October 1993); art 37(3), Protocol on Tribunal (signed 7 August 2000, entered into force 14 August 2011).

¹⁹¹ ibid, [77].

¹⁹² There are contrary examples of Latin American constitutional courts joining or leading efforts to escape from treaty obligations to submit to international adjudication: Huneeus, A and Urueña, R, ‘Treaty Exit and Latin America's Constitutional Courts’ (2017) 111 AJIL Unbound 456CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹³ Romano, C, ‘Trial and Error in International Judicialization’ in Romano, C, Alter, K and Shany, Y (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Adjudication (Oxford University Press 2013) Ch 6Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Above Part II(D).

¹⁹⁵ Madsen, M Rask, Cebulak, P and Wiebusch, M, ‘Backlash against International Courts: Explaining the Forms and Patterns of Resistance to International Courts’ (2018) 14 International Journal of Law in Context 197, 217CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹⁶ Saul, B, Mowbray, J and Baghoomians, I, ‘The Last Frontier of Human Rights Protection: Interrogating Resistance to Regional Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific’ (2011) 18 AustILJ 23Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁷ Plaintiff M68/2015 v Minister for Immigration [2016] HCA 1, (2016) 257 CLR 42, 327 ALR 369.

¹⁹⁸ Lauterpacht, H, The Function of Law in the International Community (Oxford University Press 1933, rev edn 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁹ M Koskenniemi, ‘The Function of Law in the International Community: Introduction’ in H Lauterpacht ibid, xxix, xlvii.

²⁰⁰ ibid 161, 166.

²⁰¹ ibid 435.

²⁰² ibid 437.

²⁰³ ibid 432.

²⁰⁴ Alston, P, ‘The Populist Challenge to Human Rights’ (2017) 9 Journal of Human Rights Practice 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰⁵ Hull (n 13).