Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-7l9ct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T23:36:23.194Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

Alicia J. Mangram ,
Teresa C. Horan ,
Michele L. Pearson ,
Leah Christine Silver ,
William R. Jarvis  and
The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee
Alicia J. Mangram*
Affiliation:
Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia
Teresa C. Horan
Affiliation:
Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia
Michele L. Pearson
Affiliation:
Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia
Leah Christine Silver
Affiliation:
Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia
William R. Jarvis
Affiliation:
Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia
*
SSI Guideline, Hospital Infections Program, Mailstop E69, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The “Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999” presents the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s recommendations for the prevention of surgical site infections (SSIs), formerly called surgical wound infections. This two-part guideline updates and replaces previous guidelines.

Part I, “Surgical Site Infection: An Overview,” describes the epidemiology, definitions, microbiology, pathogenesis, and surveillance of SSIs. Included is a detailed discussion of the pre-, intra-, and postoperative issues relevant to SSI genesis.

Type
Special Report
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 20 , Issue 4 , April 1999 , pp. 247 - 280
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1.Garner, JS. CDC guideline for prevention of surgical wound infections, 1985. Supercedes guideline for prevention of surgical wound infections published in 1982. (Originally published in 1995). Revised. Infect Control 1986;7(3:193–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Simmons, BRGuideline for prevention of surgical wound infections. Infect Control 1982;3:185–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Garner, JS. The CDC Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:160–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Hecht, AD. Creating greater efficiency in ambulatory surgery. J Clin Anesth 1995;7:581–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Horwitz, JR, Chwals, WJ, Doski, JJ, Suescun, EACheu, HW, Lally, KEPediatric wound infections: a prospective multicenter study. Ann Surg 1998;227:553–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Golub, R, Siddiqui, F, Pohl, D. Laparoscopic versus open appendectomy: a metaanalysis. J Am Coll Surg 1998;186:545–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Mayol, J, Garcia-Aguilar, J, Ortiz-Oshiro, E, De-Diego Carmona, JAFerndandez-Represa, JARisks of the minimal access approach for laparoscopic surgery: multivariate analysis of morbidity related to umbilical trocar insertion. World J Surg 1997;21:529–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Lacy, AM, Garcia-Valdecasas, JC, Delgado, S, Grande, LFuster, J, Tabet, J, et al. Postoperative complications of laparoscopic-assisted colectomy. Surg Endose 1997;11:119–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Pagni, S, Salloum, EJ, Tobin, GR, VanHimbergen, DJ, Spence, PASerious wound infections after minimally invasive coronary bypass procedures. Ann Thorac Surg 1998;66:92–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.The Southern Surgeons Club. A prospective analysis of 1518 laparoscopic cholecystectomies. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1073–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) report, data summary from October 1986-April 1997, issued May 1997. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:477–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Food and Drug Administration. Topical antimicrobial drug products for over-the-counter human use: tentative final monograph for health-care antiseptic drug products—proposed rule (21 CFR Parts 333 and 369). Federal Register 1994;59:31441–52.Google Scholar
13.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Vital and Health Statistics, Detailed Diagnoses and Procedures, National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1994. Vol 127. Hyattsville, Maryland: DHHS Publication; 1997.Google Scholar
14.Emori, TG, Gaynes, RP. An overview of nosocomial infections, including the role of the microbiology laboratory. Clin Microbiol Rev 1993;6(4:428–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Cruse, EWound infection surveillance. Rev Infect Dis 1981;4(3:734–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Cruse, PJ, Foord, RThe epidemiology of wound infection: a 10-year prospective study of 62,939 wounds. Surg Clin North Am 1980;60(1): 2740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Martone, WJ, Jarvis, WR, Culver, DH, Haley, RW. Incidence and nature of endemic and epidemic nosocomial infections. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1992. p. 577–96.Google Scholar
18.Boyce, JM, Potter-Bynoe, G, Dziobek, L. Hospital reimbursement patterns among patients with surgical wound infections following open heart surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11(2):89–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Poulsen, KB, Bremmelgaard, ASorensen, AI, Raahave, D, Petersen, JV. Estimated costs of postoperative wound infections. A case-control study of marginal hospital and social security costs. Epidemiol Infect 1994;113(2:283–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Vegas, AAJodra, VM, Garcia, MLNosocomial infection in surgery wards: a controlled study of increased duration of hospital stays and direct cost of hospitalization. Eur J Epidemiol 1993;9(5:504–10.Google Scholar
21.Albers, BAPatka, P, Haarman, HJ, Kostense, PJ. Cost effectiveness of preventive antibiotic administration for lowering risk of infection by 0.25%. [German]. Unfallchirurg 1994;97(12:625–8.Google Scholar
22.Horan, TC, Gaynes, RP, Martone, WJ, Jarvis, WR, Emori, TG. CDC definitions of nosocomial surgical site infections, 1992: a modification of CDC definitions of surgical wound infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13(10:606–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Ehrenkranz, NJ, Richter, EI, Phillips, PM, Shultz, JM. An apparent excess of operative site infections: analyses to evaluate false-positive diagnoses. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16(12:712–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Taylor, G, McKenzie, M, Kirkland, T, Wiens, REffect of surgeon's diagnosis on surgical wound infection rates. Am J Infect Control 1990;18(5:295–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.SHEA APIC, CDC, SIS. Consensus paper on the surveillance of surgical wound infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13(10): 599–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Nooyen, SM, Overbeek, BP, Brutel de la Riviere, A, Storm, AJ, Langemeyer, JM. Prospective randomised comparison of single-dose versus multiple-dose cefuroxime for prophylaxis in coronary artery bypass grafting. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:1033–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) report, data summary from October 1986-April 1996, issued May 1996. A report from the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System. Ann J Infect Control 1996;24:380–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Schaberg, DRResistant gram-positive organisms. Ann Emerg Med 1994;24(3:462–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Schaberg, DR, Culver, DH, Gaynes, RP. Major trends in the microbial etiology of nosocomial infection. Am J Med 1991;91(3B):72S–5S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Jarvis, WR. Epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections, with emphasis on Candida species, din Infect Dis 1995;20:1526–30.Google ScholarPubMed
31.Centers for Disease Control. Nosocomial outbreak of Rhizopus infections associated with Elastoplast wound dressings—Minnesota. MMWR 1978;27:33–4.Google Scholar
32.Pearson, RD, Valenti, WM, Steigbigel, RT. Clostridium perfringens wound infections associated with elastic bandages. JAMA 1980;244:1128–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Richet, HM, Craven, PC, Brown, JM, Lasker, BACox, CD, McNeil, MM, et al. A cluster of Rhodococcus (Gordona) bronchialis sternal-wound infections after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 1991;324:104–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Wenger, PN, Brown, JM, McNeil, MM, Jarvis, WRNocardia farcinica sternotomy site infections in patients following open heart surgery. J Infect Dis 1998;178:1539–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Lowry, PW, Blankenship, RJ, Gridley, W, Troup, NJ, Tompkins, LS. A cluster of Legionella sternal-wound infections due to postoperative topical exposure to contaminated tap water. N Engl J Med 1991;324: 109–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Bassett, DC, Stokes, KJ, Thomas, WR. Wound infection with Pseudomonas multivorans: a water-borne contaminant of disinfectant solutions. Lancet 1970;1:1188–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Cruse, PJ. Surgical wound infection. In: Wonsiewicz, MJ, ed. Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1992. p. 758–64.Google Scholar
38.Altemeier, WA, Culbertson, WR. Surgical infection. In: Moyer, CARhoads, JE, Allen, JG, Harkins, HN, eds. Surgery, principles and practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1965. p. 51–77.Google Scholar
39.Krizek, TJ, Robson, MC. Evolution of quantitative bacteriology in wound management. Am J Surg 1975;130:579–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Elek, SD, Conen, PE. The virulence of Staphylococcus pyogenes for man: a study of problems with wound infection. Br J Exp Pathol 1957;38: 573–86.Google Scholar
41.Noble, WC. The production of subcutaneous staphylococcal skin lesions in mice. Br J Exp Pathol 1965;46:254–62.Google ScholarPubMed
42.James, RC, MacLeod, CJ. Induction of staphylococcal infections in mice with small inocula introduced on sutures. Br J Exp Pathol 1961;42: 266–77.Google ScholarPubMed
43.Henderson, B, Poole, S, Wilson, M. Microbial/host interactions in health and disease: who controls the cytokine network? Immunopharmacology 1996;35:1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Morrison, DC, Ryan, JL. Endotoxins and disease mechanisms. Ann Rev Med 1987;38:417–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Demling, R, LaLonde, C, Saldinger, P, Knox, J. Multiple-organ dysfunction in the surgical patient: pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. Curr Probi Surg 1993;30:345–414.Google ScholarPubMed
46.Eiseman, B, Beart, R, Norton, L. Multiple organ failure. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1977;14:323–6.Google Scholar
47.Fry, DE, Pearlstein, L, Fulton, RL, Polk, HC Jr., Multiple system organ failure: the role of uncontrolled infection. Arch Surg 1980;115:136–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Kasper, DL. Bacterial capsule—old dogmas and new tricks. J Infect Dis 1986;153:407–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Dellinger, EP. Surgical infections and choice of antibiotics. In: Sabiston, DC, ed. Textbook of Surgery. The Biological Basis of Modern Surgical Practice. 15th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1997. p. 264–80.Google Scholar
50.Goeau-Brissonniere, O, Leport, C, Guidoin, R, Lebrault, C, Pechere, JC, Bacourt, F. Experimental colonization of an expanded polytetrafluo-roethylene vascular graft with Staphylococcus aureus: a quantitative and morphologic study. J Vase Surg 1987;5(5:743–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Bergamini, TM, Corpus, RA Jr., Brittian, KRPeyton, JC, Cheadle, WG. The natural history of bacterial biofilm graft infection. J Surg Res 1994;56:393–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Baddour, IM, Christensen, GD, Hester, MG, Bisno, ALProduction of experimental endocarditis by coagulase-negative staphylococci: variability in species virulence. J Infect Dis 1984;150:721–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Christensen, GD, Baddour, LM, Simpson, WAPhenotypic variation of Staphylococcus epidermidis slime production in vitro and in vivo. Infect Immun 1987;55:2870–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Mayberry-Carson, KJ, Tober-Meyer, B, Smith, JK, Lambe, DW Jr., Costerton, JW. Bacterial adherence and glycocalyx formation in osteomyelitis experimentally induced with Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 1984;43:825–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Mills, J, Pulliam, L, Dali, L, Marzouk, J, Wilson, W, Costerton, JW. Exopolysaccharide production by viridans streptococci in experimental endocarditis. Infect Immun 1984;43:359–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Kaebnick, HW, Bandyk, DF, Bergamini, TM, Towne, JB. The microbiology of explanted vascular prostheses. Surgery 1987;102:756–61.Google ScholarPubMed
57.Atemeier, WA, Culbertson, WR, Hummel, RPSurgical considerations of endogenous infections—sources, types, and methods of control. Surg Clin North Am 1968;48:227–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58.Wiley, AM, Ha'eri, GB. Routes of infection: a study of using “tracer particles” in the orthopedic operating room. Clin Orthop 1979;139:150–5.Google Scholar
59.Slaughter, L, Morris, JE, Starr, AProsthetic valvular endocarditis. A 12-year review. Circulation 1973;47:1319–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Carlsson, AK, Lidgren, L, Lindberg, LProphylactic antibiotics against early and late deep infections after total hip replacements. Acta Orthop Scand 1977;48:405–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Hunter, JG, Padilla, M, Cooper-Vastola, S. Late Clostridium perfringens breast implant infection after dental treatment. Ann Plast Surg 1996;36(3:309–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Stuesse, DC, Robinson, JH, Durzinsky, DS. A late sternal wound infection caused by hematogenous spread of bacteria. Chest 1995;108(6:1742–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Howe, CW. Experimental wound sepsis from transient Escherichia coli bacteremia. Surgery 1969;66:570–4.Google ScholarPubMed
64.Velasco, E, Thuler, LC, Martins, CA, Dias, LM, Conalves, VM. Risk factors for infectious complications after abdominal surgery for malignant disease. Am JInfect Control 1996;24(1:1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Bruun, JN. Post-operative wound infection. Predisposing factors and the effect of a reduction in the dissemination of staphylococci. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1970;514(Suppl):3–89.Google ScholarPubMed
66.Simchen, E, Rozin, R, Wax, Y. The Israeli Study of Surgical Infection of drains and the risk of wound infection in operations for hernia. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1990;170:331–7.Google ScholarPubMed
67.Edwards, ID. The epidemiology of 2056 remote site infections and 1966 surgical wound infections occurring in 1865 patients: a four year study of 40,923 operations at Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Hospital, Chicago. Ann Surg 1976;184:758–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.Valentine, RJ, Weigelt, JADryer, D, Rodgers, C. Effect of remote infections on clean wound infection rates. Am J Infect Control 1986;14:64–7.Google ScholarPubMed
69.Cioffi, GATerezhalmy, GT, Taybos, GM. Total joint replacement: a consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1988;66(1:124–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Heggeness, MH, Esses, SI, Errico, T, Yuan, HA. Late infection of spinal instrumentation by hematogenous seeding. Spine 1993;18(4:492–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Mont, MAWaldman, B, Banerjee, C, Pacheco, IH, Hungerford, DS. Multiple irrigation, debridement, and retention of components in infected total knee arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 1997;12(4:426–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Ozuna, RM, Delamarter, RB. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis and postsurgical disc space infections. Ortho Clin North Am 1996;27(1): 87–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73.Schmalzried, TP, Amstutz, HC, Au, MK, Dorey, FJ. Etiology of deep sepsis in total hip arthroplasty. The significance of hematogenous and recurrent infections. Clin Orthop 1992;280:200–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Calia, FM, Wolinsky, E, Mortimer, EA Jr., Abrams, JS, Rammelkamp, CH Jr.Importance of the carrier state as a source of Staphylococcus aureus in wound sepsis. J Hyg (Lond) 1969;67:49–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75.Dineen, P, Drusin, LEpidemics of postoperative wound infections associated with hair carriers. Lancet 1973;2(7839:1157–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76.Mastro, TD, Farley, TA, Elliott, JA, Facklam, RRPerks, JR, Hadler, JL, et al. An outbreak of surgical-wound infections due to group A streptococcus carried on the scalp. N Engl J Med 1990;323:968–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77.Ford, CR, Peterson, DE, Mitchell, CRAn appraisal of the role of surgical face masks. Am J Surg 1967;113:787–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.Letts, RM, Doermer, E. Conversation in the operating theater as a cause of airborne bacterial contamination. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1983;65:357–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79.Giamarellou, H, Antoniadou, AEpidemiology, diagnosis, and therapy of fungal infections in surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17(8:558–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80.Lee, JT. Surgical wound infections: surveillance for quality improvement. In: Fry, DE, ed. Surgical Infections. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1995. p. 145–59.Google Scholar
81.Perl, TM, Golub, JE. New approaches to reduce Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial infection rates: treating S. aureus nasal carriage. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:S7–S16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Kluytmans, JAMouton, JW, Ijzerman, EP, Vandenbroucke-Grauls, CM, Maat, AW, Wagenvoort, JH, et al. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus as a major risk factor for wound infections after cardiac surgery. J Infect Dis 1995;171:216–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83.Perl, TM, Cullen, JJ, Pfaller, MAWenzel, RP, Herwaldt, LAThe MARS Study Team. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of intranasal mupirocin ointment (IM) for prevention of S. aureus surgical site infections (SSI) [abstract]. Abstracts of the IDSA 36th Annual Meeting 1998;91(88).Google Scholar
84.Gil-Egea, MJ, Pi-Sunyer, MT, Verdaguer, ASanz, F, Sitges-Serra A Eleizegui, LT. Surgical wound infections: prospective study of 4,486 clean wounds. Infect Control 1987;8(7:277–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85.Nagachinta, T, Stephens, M, Reitz, B, Polk, BERisk factors for surgical-wound infection following cardiac surgery. J Infect Dis 1987;156:967–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Iilienfeld, DE, Vlahov, D, Tenney, JH, McLaughlin, JS. Obesity and diabetes as risk factors for postoperative wound infections after cardiac surgery. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:3–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87.Slaughter, MS, Olson, MM, Lee, JT Jr., Ward, HB. A fifteen-year wound surveillance study after coronary artery bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 1993;56(5:1063–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Bryan, AJ, Lamarra, M, Angelini, GD, West, RR, Breckenridge, IM. Median sternotomy wound dehiscence: a retrospective case control study of risk factors and outcome. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1992;37:305–8.Google ScholarPubMed
89.Jones, JK, Triplett, RG. The relationship of cigarette smoking to impaired intraoral wound healing: a review of evidence and implications for patient care. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1992;50(3):237–9; discussion 23940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Vinton, AL, Traverso, LW, Jolly, PC. Wound complications after modified radical mastectomy compared with tylectomy with axillary lymph node dissection. Am J Surg 1991;161(5:584–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Holley, DT, Toursarkissian, B, Vansconez, HC, Wells, MD, Kenady, DE, Sloan, DAThe ramifications of immediate reconstruction in the management of breast cancer. Am Surg 1995;61(1:60–5.Google ScholarPubMed
92.Beitsch, P, Balch, C. Operative morbidity and risk factor assessment in melanoma patients undergoing inguinal lymph node dissection. Am J Surg 1992;164(5):462–6; discussion 465-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93.Post, S, Betzier, M, von Ditfurth, B, Schurmann, G, Kuppers, P, Herfarth, C. Risks of intestinal anastomoses in Crohn's disease. Ann Surg 1991;213(1:37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94.B'erard, F, Gandon, J. Postoperative wound infections: the influence of ultraviolet irradiation of the operating room and of various other factors. Ann Surg 1964;160(Suppl 1):1–192.Google Scholar
95.Nystrom, PO, Jonstam, AHojer, H, Ling, L. Incisional infection after colorectal surgery in obese patients. Acta Chir Scand 1987;153:225–7.Google ScholarPubMed
96.He, GW, Ryan, WH, Acuff, TE, Bowman, RT, Douthit, MB, Yang, CQ, et al. Risk factors for operative mortality and sternal wound infection in bilateral internal mammary artery grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107(1:196–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Barber, GR, Miransky, J, Brown, AE, Coit, DG, Lewis, FM, Thaler, HT, et al. Direct observations of surgical wound infections at a comprehensive cancer center. Arch Surg 1995;130(10:1042–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
98.Cruse, PJ, Foord, RA five-year prospective study of 23,649 surgical wounds. Arch Surg 1973;107:206–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
99.Claesson, BE, Holmlund, DE. Predictors of intraoperative bacterial contamination and postoperative infection in elective colorectal surgery. J Hosp Infect 1988;11:127–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.Mishriki, SF, Law, DJ, Jeffery, PJ. Factors affecting the incidence of postoperative wound infection. J Hosp Infect 1990;16:223–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Doig, CM, Wilkinson, AW. Wound infection in a children's hospital. Br J Surg 1976;63:647–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102.Sharma, LK, Sharma, PKPostoperative wound infection in a pediatric surgical service. J Pediatr Surg 1986;21:889–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103.Casey, J, Flinn, WR, Yao, JS, Fahey, V, Pawlowski, J, Bergan, JJ. Correlation of immune and nutritional status with wound complications in patients undergoing vascular operations. Surgery 1983;93(6:822–7.Google ScholarPubMed
104.Greene, KA, Wilde, AH, Stulberg, BN. Preoperative nutritional status of total joint patients. Relationship to postoperative wound complications. J Arthroplasty 1991;6(4:321–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Weber, TR. A prospective analysis of factors influencing outcome after fundoplication. J Perfiaii- Surg 1995;30(7):1061–3; discussion 10634.Google ScholarPubMed
106.Vamvakas, EC, Carven, JH. Transfusion of white-cell-containing allogeneic blood components and postoperative wound infection: effect of confounding factors. Transfus Med 1998;8:29–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Vamvakas, EC, Carven, JH, Hibberd, PL. Blood transfusion and infection after colorectal cancer surgery. Transfusion 1996;36:1000–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108.Jensen, LS, Kissmeyer-Nielsen, P, Wolff, B, Qvist, N. Randomised comparison of leucocyte-depleted versus buffy-coat-poor blood transfusion and complications after colorectal surgery. Lancet 1996;348:841–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Heiss, MM, Mempel, W, Jauch, KW, Delanoff, C, Mayer, G, Mempel, M, et al. Beneficial effect of autologous blood transfusion on infectious complications after colorectal cancer surgery. Lancet 1993;342:1328–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.Lidgren, L. Postoperative orthopaedic infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. Acta Orthop Scand 1973;44:149–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111.Gordon, SM, Serkey, JM, Barr, C, Cosgrove, D, Potts, W. The relationship between glycosylated hemoglobin (HgAlc) levels and postoperative infections in patients undergoing primary coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) [abstract]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997; 18(No. 5,Part2):29(58).Google Scholar
112.Zerr, KJ, Furnary, AP, Grunkemeier, GL, Bookin, S, Kanhere, V, Starr, A. Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;63(2:356–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113.Terranova, A. The effects of diabetes mellitus on wound healing. Plast Surg Nurs 1991;11(1):20–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114.Ziv, Y, Church, JM, Fazio, VW, King, TM, Lavery 1C. Effect of systemic steroids on ileal pouchanal anastomosis in patients with ulcerative colitis. Dis Colon Rectum 1996;39(5:504–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Pons, VG, Denlinger, SL, Guglielmo, BJ, Octavio, J, Flaherty, J, Derish, PA, et al. Ceftizoxime versus vancomycin and gentamicin in neurosurgical prophylaxis: a randomized, prospective, blinded clinical study. Neurosurgery 1993;33(3):416–22; discussion 422-3.Google ScholarPubMed
116.Brown, IW Jr, Moor, GF, Hummel, BW, Marshall, WG Jr, Collins, JP. Toward further reducing wound infections in cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1996;62 (6): 1783–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Christou, NV, Nohr, CW, Meakins, JL. Assessing operative site infection in surgical patients. Arch Surg 1987;122:165–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118.Hu, SS, Fontaine, F, Kelly, B, Bradford, DS. Nutritional depletion in staged spinal reconstructive surgery. The effect of total parenteral nutrition. Spine 1998;23:1401–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Schackert, HK, Betzler, M, Zimmermann, GF, Decker, R, Geelhaar, H, Edler, L, et al. The predictive role of delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity testing in postoperative complications. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1986;162:563–8.Google ScholarPubMed
120.Katelaris, PH, Bennett, GB, Smith, RC. Prediction of postoperative complications by clinical and nutritional assessment. Aust N Z J Surg 1986;56:743–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121.Leite, JF, Antunes, CF, Monteiro, JC, Pereira, BT. Value of nutritional parameters in the prediction of postoperative complications in elective gastrointestinal surgery. Br J Surg 1987;74:426–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Mullen, JL, Gertner, MH, Buzby, GRGoodhart, GL, Rosato, EF, Implications of malnutrition in the surgical patient. Arch Surg 1979;114:121–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Buzby, GP, Mullen, JL, Matthews, DC, Hobbs, CL, Rosato, EFPrognostic nutritional index in gastrointestinal surgery. Am J Surg 1980;139:160–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124.Ellis, LM, Copeland, EM 3rd, Souba, WW. Perioperative nutritional support Surg Clin North Am 1991;71:493–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125.Haley, RW, Culver, DH, Morgan, WM, White, JW, Emori, TG, Hooton, TM. Identifying patients at high risk of surgical wound infection. A simple, multivariate index of patient susceptibility and wound contamination. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121:206–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
126.Culver, DH, Horan, TC, Gaynes, RP, Martone, WJ, Jarvis, WR, Emori, TG, et al. Surgical wound infection rates by wound class, operative procedure, and patient risk index. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 3B):152S–7S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
127.Windsor, JAHill, GLWeight loss with physiologic impairment. A basic indicator of surgical risk. Ann Surg 1988;207:290–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Campos, AC, Meguid, MM. A critical appraisal of the usefulness of perioperative nutritional support. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;55:117–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
129.McPhee, IB, Williams, RP, Swanson, CE. Factors influencing wound healing after surgery for metastatic disease of the spine. Spine 1998;23: 726–33; discussion 732-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
130.Mullen, JL, Buzby, GP, Matthews, DC, Smale, BF, Rosato, EFReduction of operative morbidity and mortality by combined preoperative and postoperative nutritional support. Ann Surg 1980;192:604–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131.Windsor, JAHill, GL. Protein depletion and surgical risk. Aust N Z J Surg 1988;58:711–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132.Ulicny, KS Jr, Hiratzka, LF, Williams, RB, Grunkemeier, GL, Flege, JB Jr, Wright, CB, et al. Sternotomy infection: poor prediction by acute phase response and delayed hypersensitivity. Ann Thorac Surg 1990;50:949–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
133.Shukla, HS, Rao, RR, Banu, N, Gupta, RM, Yadav, RC. Enteral hyperalimentation in malnourished surgical patients. Indian J Med Res 1984;80:339–46.Google ScholarPubMed
134.Moore, EE, Jones, TN. Benefits of immediate jejunostomy feeding after major abdominal trauma—a prospective, randomized study. J Trauma 1986;26:874–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135.Daly, JM, Lieberman, MD, Goldfine, J, Shou, J, Weintraub, F, Rosato, EF, et al. Enteral nutrition with supplemental arginine, RNA and omega-3 fatty acids in patients after operation: immunologic, metabolic, and clinical outcome. Surgery 1992;112:56–67.Google ScholarPubMed
136.Daly, JM, Weintraub, FN, Shou, J, Rosato, EF, Lucia, M. Enteral nutrition during multimodality therapy in upper gastrointestinal cancer patients. Ann Surg 1995;221:327–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
137.Moore, FA, Feliciano, DV, Andrassy, RJ, McArdle, AH, Booth, FV, Morgenstein-Wagner, TB, et al. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative Tieptic complications. The results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg 1992;216:172–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
138.Starker, PM, Lasala, PAAskanazi, J, Gump, FE, Forse, RA, Kinney, JM. The response to TPN: a form of nutritional assessment. Ann Surg 1983;198:7204.Google Scholar
139.Muller, JM, Brenner, U, Dienst, C, Pichlmaier, H. Preoperative parenteral feeding in patients with gastrointestinal carcinoma. Lancet 1982;1: 68–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
140.Holter, AR, Fischer, JE. The effects of perioperative hyperalimentation on complications in patients with carcinoma and weight loss. J Surg Res 1977;23:31–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.Thompson, BRJulian, TB, Stremple, JF. Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. J Surg Res 1981;30: 497–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
142.Brennan, MF, Pisters, PW, Posner, M, Quesada, O, Shike, M. A prospective randomized trial of total parenteral nutrition after major pancreatic resection for malignancy. Ann Surg 1994;220:436–41; discussion 441-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143.The Veterans Affairs Total Parenteral Nutrition Cooperative Study Group. Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in surgical patients. N Engl J Med 1991;325:525–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
144.Starker, PM; LaSala, PA, Askanazi, J, Todd, G, Hensle, TW, Kinney, JM. The influence of preoperative total parenteral nutrition upon morbidity and mortality. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1986;162:569–74.Google ScholarPubMed
145.Senkal, M, Mumme, AEickhoff, U, Geier, C, Spath, G, Wulfert, D, et al. Early postoperative enteral immunonutrition: clinical outcome and cost-comparison analysis in surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1997;25:1489–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
146.Heatley, RV, Williams, RH, Lewis, MH. Pre-operative intravenous feeding—a controlled trial. Postgrad Med J 1979;55:541–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
147.Muller, JM, Keller, HW, Brenner, U, Walter, M, Holzmuller, W. Indications and effects of preoperative parenteral nutrition. World J Surg 1986;10: 53–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
148.Daly, JM, Massar, E, Ciacco, G, Frazier, OH, Mountain, CF, Dudrick, SJ, et al. Parenteral nutrition in esophageal cancer patients. Ann Surg 1982;196:203–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
149.Klein, JD, Hey, LA, Yu, CS, Klein, BB, Coufal, FJ, Ycmng, EP, et al. Perioperative nutrition and postoperative complications in patients undergoing spinal surgery. Spine 1996;21:2676–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
150.Garibaldi, RA, Cushing, D, Lerer, T. Risk factors for postoperative infection. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 3B):158S–63S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151.Lee, JT. Operative complications and quality improvement. Am J Surg 1996;171:545–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152.Kluytmans, JAMouton, JW, Vanden Bergh, MF, Manders, MJ, Maat, AP, et al. Reduction of surgical-site infections in cardiothoracic surgery by elimination of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:780–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
153.Boyce, JM. Preventing staphylococcal infections by eradicating nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: proceeding with caution. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:775–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
154.Blajchman, MAAllogeneic blood transfusions, immunomodulation, and postoperative bacterial infection: do we have the answers yet? Transfusion 1997;37:121–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
155.Garibaldi, RAPrevention of intraoperative wound contamination with Chlorhexidine shower and scrub. J Hosp Infect 1988;11(Suppl B):5–9.Google Scholar
156.Paulson, DS. Efficacy evaluation of a 4% Chlorhexidine gluconate as a full-body shower wash. Am J Infect Control 1993;21(4:205–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
157.Hayek, LJ, Emerson, JM, Gardner, AM. A placebo-controlled trial of the effect of two preoperative baths or showers with Chlorhexidine detergent on postoperative wound infection rates. J Hosp Infect 1987;10: 165–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
158.Kaiser, AB, Kernodle, DS, Barg, NL, Petracek, MRInfluence of preoperative showers on staphylococcal skin colonization: a comparative trial of antiseptic skin cleansers. Ann Thorac Surg 1988;45:35–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
159.Rotter, ML, Larsen, SO, Cooke, EM, Dankert, J, Daschner, F, Greco, D, et al. A comparison of the effects of preoperative whole-body bathing with detergent alone and with detergent containing Chlorhexidine gluconate on the frequency of wound infections after clean surgery. The European Working Party on Control of Hospital Infections. J Hosp Infect 1988;11:310–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
160.Leigh, DAStrange, JL, Marriner, J, Sedgwick, J. Total body bathing with ‘Hibiscrub’ (Chlorhexidine) in surgical patients: a controlled trizi J Hosp Infect 1983;4:229–35.Google Scholar
161.Ayliffe, GA, Noy, MF, Babb, JR, Davies, JG, Jackson, J. A comparison of pre-operative bathing with chlorhexidine-detergent and non-medicated soap in the prevention of wound infection. J Hosp Infect 1983;4:237–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
162.Lynch, W, Davey, PG, Malek, M, Byrne, DJ, Napier, ACost-effectiveness analysis of the use of Chlorhexidine detergent in preoperative whole-body disinfection in wound infection prophylaxis. J Hosp Infect 1992;21:179–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
163.Brady, LM, Thomson, M, Palmer, MA, Harkness, JLSuccessful control of endemic MRSA in a cardiothoracic surgical unit. Med J Aust 1990;152:240–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
164.Tuffiteli, DJ, Croton, RS, Hemingway, DM, Hartley, MN, Wake, PN, Garvey, RJ. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; the role of antisepsis in the control of an outbreak. J Hosp Infect 1987;10:255–9.Google Scholar
165.Bartzokas, CA, Paton, JH, Gibson, MF, Graham, F, McLoughlin, GACroton, RS. Control and eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a surgical unit. N Engl J Med 1984;311:1422–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
166.Seropian, R, Reynolds, BM. Wound infections after preoperative depilatory versus razor preparation. Am J Surg 1971;121:251–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
167.Hamilton, HW, Hamilton, KR, Lone, FJ. Preoperative hair removal. Can J Surg 1977;20:269–71, 274-5.Google ScholarPubMed
168.Olson, MM, MacCallum, J, McQuarrie, DG. Preoperative hair removal with clippers does not increase infection rate in clean surgical wounds. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1986;162:181–2.Google Scholar
169.Mehta, G, Prakash, B, Karmoker, S. Computer assisted analysis of wound infection in neurosurgery. J Hosp Infect 1988;11:244–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
170.Alexander, JW, Fischer, JE, Boyajian, M, Palmquist, J, Morris, MJ. The influence of hair-removal methods on wound infections. Arch Surg 1983;118(3:347–52.Google Scholar
171.Masterson, TM, Rodeheaver, GT, Morgan, RF, Edlich, REBacteriologie evaluation of electric clippers for surgical hair removal. Am J Surg 1984;148:301–2.Google Scholar
172.Sellick, JA Jr., Stelmach, M, Mylotte, JM. Surveillance of surgical wound infections following open heart surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12(10:591–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
173.Ko, W, Lazenby, WD, Zelano, JA, Zsom, W, Krieger, KH. Effects of shaving methods and intraoperative irrigation on suppurative mediastinitis after bypass operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;53:301–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
174.Moro, ML, Carrieri, MP, Tozzi, AE, Lana, S, Greco, D. Risk factors for surgical wound infections in clean surgery: a multicenter study. Italian PRINOS Study Group. Ann Ital Chir 1996;67:13–9.Google ScholarPubMed
175.Winston, KRHair and neurosurgery. Neurosurgery 1992;31(2:320–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
176.Larson, E. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:253–66.Google Scholar
177.Hardin, WD, Nichols, RL. Handwashing and patient skin preparation. In: Malangoni, MA, ed. Critical Issues in Operating Room Management. Philadelphia: Iippincott-Raven; 1997. p. 133–49.Google Scholar
178.Ritter, MA, French, MLEitzen, HE, Gioe, TJ. The antimicrobial effectiveness of operative-site preparative agents: a microbiological and clinical study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1980;62(5:826–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
179.Mayhall, CG. Surgical infections including burns. In: Wenzel, RP, ed. Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1993. p. 614–64.Google Scholar
180.Committee on Control of Surgical Infections of the Committee on Pre-and Postoperative Care, American College of Surgeons. Manual on Control of Infection in Surgical Patients. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co; 1984.Google Scholar
181.Hardin, WD, Nichols, RL. Aseptic technique in the operating room. In: Fry, DE, ed. Surgical Infections. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1995. p. 109–18.Google Scholar
182.Lowbury, EJ, Lilly, HAUse of 4 percent Chlorhexidine detergent solution (Hibiscrub) and other methods of skin disinfection. Br Med J 1973;1:510–5.Google Scholar
183.Ay, R, Marbach, HI. Comparative antibacterial efficacy of a 2-minute surgical scrub with Chlorhexidine gluconate, povidone-iodine, and chlorox-ylenol sponge-brushes. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:173–7.Google Scholar
184.Peterson, AF, Rosenberg, A, Alatary, SD. Comparative evaluation of surgical scrub preparations. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1978;146:63–5.Google ScholarPubMed
185.Brown, TR, Ehrlich, CE, Stehman, FB, Golichowski, AM, Madura, JAEitzen, HE. A clinical evaluation of Chlorhexidine gluconate spray as compared with iodophor scrub for preoperative skin preparation. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1984;158:363–6.Google ScholarPubMed
186.Lowbury, EJ, Lilly, HA. The effect of blood on disinfection of surgeons' hands. Br J Surg 1974;61:19–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
187.Association of Operating Room Nurses. Recommended practices for skin preparation of patients. AORNJ 1996;64(5:813–6.Google Scholar
188.Kutarski, PW, Grundy, HC. To dry or not to dry? An assessment of the possible degradation in efficiency of preoperative skin preparation caused by wiping skin dry. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1993;75(3:181–5.Google ScholarPubMed
189.Gauthier, DK, O'Fallon, PT, Coppage, D. Clean vs sterile surgical skin preparation kits. Cost, safety, effectiveness. AORN J 1993;58(3:486–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
190.Hagen, KS, Treston-Aurand, J. A comparison of two skin preps used in cardiac surgical procedures. AORN J 1995;62(3:393–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
191.Shirahatti, RG, Joshi, RM, Vishwanath, YK, Shinkre, N, Rao, S, Sankpal, JS, et al. Effect of pre-operative skin preparation on post-operative wound infection. J Postgrad Med 1993;39(3): 134–6.Google Scholar
192.Larson, EL, Butz, AM, Gullette, DL, Laughon, BAAlcohol for surgical scrubbing? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11(3):139–43.Google Scholar
193.Faoagali, J, Fong, J, George, N, Mahoney, P, O'Rouke, V. Comparison of the immediate, residual, and cumulative antibacterial effects of Novaderm R*, Novascrub R*, Betadine Surgical Scrub, Hibiclens, and liquid soap. Am J Infect Control 1995;23(6):337–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
194.Larson, ELAPIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:251–69.Google Scholar
195.Rubio, PASeptisol antiseptic foam: a sensible alternative to the conventional surgical scrub. Int Surg 1987;72(4:243–6.Google Scholar
196.Lowbury, EJ, Lilly, HAAyliffe, GAPreoperative disinfection of surgeons' bands: use of alcoholic solutions and effects of gloves on skin flora. Br Med J 1974;4:369–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
197.Rotter, ML. Hygienic hand disinfection. Infect Control 1984;5:18–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
198.Ayliffe, GASurgical scrub and skin disinfection. Infect Control 1984;5:23–7.Google Scholar
199.Lilly, HALowbury, EJ, Wilkins, MD, Zaggy, ADelayed antimicrobial effects of skin disinfection by alcohol. J Hyg (Land) 1979;82:497–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
200.Nichols, RL, Smith, JW, Garcia, RY, Waterman, RS, Holmes, JW- Current practices of preoperative bowel preparation among North American colorectal surgeons. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:609–19.Google Scholar
201.Wade, JJ, Casewell, MW. The evaluation of residual antimicrobial activity on hands and its clinical relevance. J Hosp Infect 1991;18(Suppl B):23–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
202.Babb, JR, Davies, JG, Ayliffe, GAA test procedure for evaluating surgical hand disinfection. J Hosp Infect 1991;18(Suppl B):41–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
203.Holloway, PM, Piatt, JH, Reybrouck, G, Lilly, HAMehtar, S, Drabu, Y. A multi-centre evaluation of two chlorhexidine-containing formulations for surgical hand disinfection. J Hosp Infect 1990;16:151–9.Google Scholar
204.Kobayashi, H. Evaluation of surgical scrubbing. J Hosp Infect 1991;18(Suppl B):29–34.Google Scholar
205.Nicoletti, G, Boghossian, V, Borland, RHygienic hand disinfection: a comparative study with Chlorhexidine detergents and soap. J Hosp Infect 1990;15:323–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
206.Rotter, ML, Koller, W. Surgical hand disinfection: effect of sequential use of two Chlorhexidine preparations. J Hosp Infect 1990;16:161–6.Google Scholar
207.O'shaughnessy, M, O'Malley, VP, Corbett, G, Given, HEOptimum duration of surgical scrub-time. Br J Surg 1991;78(6:685–6.Google Scholar
208.Hingst, V, Juditzki, I, Heeg, P, Sonntag, HG. Evaluation of the efficacy of surgical hand disinfection following a reduced application time of 3 instead of 5 min. J Hosp Infect 1992;20(2:79–86.Google Scholar
209.Wheelock, SM, Lookinland, S. Effect of surgical hand scrub time on subsequent bacterial growth. AORN J 1997;65:1087–92,1094-8.Google Scholar
210.Deshmukh, N, Kramer, JW, Kjellberg, SI. A comparison of 5-minute povidone-iodine scrub and 1-minute povidone-iodine scrub followed by alcohol foam. Mil Med 1998;163:145–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
211.Masterson, BJ. Cleansing the surgeon's hands. Scientific American Surgeon 1996;2:3–9.Google Scholar
212.Association of Operating Room Nurses. Standards, Recommended Practices, Guidelines. Denver: Association of Operating Room Nurses; 1999.Google Scholar
213.Pottinger, J, Burns, S, Manske, C. Bacterial carriage by artificial versus natural nails. Am J Infect Control 1989;17:3404.Google Scholar
214.Passaro, DJ, Waring, L, Armstrong, R, Bolding, F, Bouvier, C, Rosenberg, J, et al. Postoperative Serratia marcescens wound infections traced to an out-of-hospital source. J Infect Dis 1997;175(4:992–5.Google Scholar
215.Baumgartner, CAMaragos, CS, Walz, J, Larson, E. Effects of nail polish on microbial growth of fingernails. Dispelling sacred cows. AORN J 1993;58:84–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
216.Jacobson, G, Thiele, JE, McCune, JH, Farrell, LD. Handwashing: ring-wearing and number of microorganisms. Nurs Res 1985;34:186–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
217.Hoffman, PN, Cooke, EM, McCarville, MR, Emmerson, AM. Microorganisms isolated from skin under wedding rings worn by hospital staff. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;290:206–7.Google Scholar
218.Richet, HM, Chidiac, C, Prat, APol, ADavid, M, Maccario, M, et al. Analysis of risk factors for surgical wound infections following vascular surgery. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 3B):170S–172S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
219.Centers for Disease Control. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in an ophthalmology clinic—California. MMWR 1990;39:598–601.Google Scholar
220.Ford, E, Nelson, KE, Warren, D. Epidemiology of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis. Epidemiol Rev 1987;9:244–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
221.Birenbaum, E, Linder, N, Varsano, N, Azar, RKuint, J, Spierer A et al. Adenovirus type 8 conjunctivitis outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. Arch Dis Child 1993;68(5 Spec No):610–1.Google Scholar
222.Warren, D, Nelson, KE, Farrar, JA, Hurwitz, E, Hierholzer, J, Ford, E, et al. A large outbreak of epidemie keratoconjunctivitis: problems in controlling nosocomial spread. J Infect Dis 1989;160:938–43.Google Scholar
223.Jernigan, JALowry, BS, Hayden, FG, Kyger, SAConway, BP, Groschel, DH, et al. Adenovirus type 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in an eye clinic: risk factors and control. J Infect Dis 1993;167:1307–13.Google Scholar
224.Boyce, JM. Should we vigorously try to contain and control methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:46–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
225.Boyce, JM, Opal, SM, Potter-Bynoe, G, Medeiros, AASpread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital after exposure to a health care worker with chronic sinusitis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17: 496–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
226.Sheretz, RJ, Reagan, DRHampton, KD, Robertson, KL, Streed, SAHoen, HM, et al. A cloud adult: the Staphylococcus awreiis-virus interaction revisited. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:539–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
227.Belani, A, Sherertz, RJ, Sullivan, ML, Russell, BA, Reumen, PD. Outbreak of staphylococcal infection in two hospital nurseries traced to a single nasal carrier. Infect Control 1986;7:487–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
228.Kreiswirth, BN, Kravitz, GR, Schlievert, PM, Novick, RP. Nosocomial transmission of a strain of Staphylococcus aureus causing toxic shock syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1986;105:704–7.Google Scholar
229.Weber, DJ, Rutala, WA, Denny, FW Jr.Management of healthcare workers with pharyngitis or suspected streptococcal infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:753–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
230.Viglionese, A, Nottebart, VF, Bodman, HA, Platt, RRecurrent group A streptococcal carriage in a health care worker associated with widely separated nosocomial outbreaks. Am J Med 1991;91(3B):329S–33S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
231.Paul, SM, Genese, C, Spitalny, KPostoperative group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus outbreak with the pathogen traced to a member of a healthcare worker's household. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:643–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
232.Ridgway, EJ, Alen, KD. Clustering of group A streptococcal infections on a burns unit: important lessons in outbreak management. J Hosp Infect 1993;25:173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
233.Berkelman, RL, Martin, D, Graham, DR, Mowry, J, Freisem, R, Weber, JA, et al. Streptococcal wound infection caused by a vaginal carrier. JAMA 1982;247:2680–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
234.Schaffner, W, Lefkowitz, LB Jr., Goodman, JS, Koenig, MG. Hospital outbreak of infections with group A streptococci traced to an asymptomatic anal carrier. N Engl J Med 1969;280:1224–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
235.Richman, DD, Breton, SJ, Goldman, DAScarlet fever and group A streptococcal surgical wound infection traced to an anal carrier. J Pediatr 1977;90:387–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
236.Stromberg, ASchwan, A, Cars, O. Throat carrier rates of beta-hemolytic streptococci among healthy adults and children. Scand J Infect Dis 1988;20:411–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
237.Stamm, WE, Feeley, JC, Facklam, RRWound infection due to group A streptococcus traced to a vaginal carrier. J Infect Dis 1978;138:287–92.Google Scholar
238.Bolyard, EA, Tablan, OC, Williams, WW, Pearson, ML, Shapiro, CN, Deitchman, SD, et al. Guideline for infection control in healthcare personnel, 1998. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:289–354.Google Scholar
239.Nichols, RL, Holmes, JW. Prophylaxis in bowel surgery. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis 1995;15:76–96.Google ScholarPubMed
240.Nichols, RL, Smith, JW, Muzik, AC, Love, EJ, McSwain, NE, Timberlake, G, et al. Preventive antibiotic usage in traumatic thoracic injuries requiring closed tube thoracostomy. Chest 1994;106(5:1493–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
241.Bullock, R, van Dellen, JRKetelbey, W, Reinach, SG. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of perioperative prophylactic antibiotics for elective neurosurgery. J Neurosurg 1988;69(5:687–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
242.Page, CRBohnen, JM, Fletcher, JR, McManus, AT, Solomkin, JS, Wittmann, DH. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgical wounds. Guidelines for clinical care. Arch Surg 1993;128(1:79–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
243.McQueen, M, Littlejohn, AHughes, SP. A comparison of systemic cefuroxime and cefuroxime loaded bone cement in the prevention of early infection after total joint replacement. Int Orthop 1987;11:241–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
244.Henley, MB, Jones, RE, Wyatt, RWB, Hofmann, A, Cohen, RL. Prophylaxis with cefamandole nafate in elective orthopedic surgery. Clin Orthop 1986;209:249–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
245.Buckley, R, Hughes, GN, Snodgrass, T, Huchcroft, SAPerioperative cefa-zolin prophylaxis in hip fracture surgery. Can J Surg 1990;33:122–7.Google ScholarPubMed
246.Boyd, RJ, Burke, JF, Colton, T. A double-blind clinical trial of prophylactic antibiotic in hip fractures. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1973;55A1251–8.Google Scholar
247.Bernard, A, Piliet, M, Goudet, P, Viard, H. Antibiotic prophylaxis in pulmonary surgery. A prospective randomized double-blind trial of flash cefuroxime versus forty-eight-hour cefuroxime. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107(3:896–900.Google Scholar
248.Piatt, RZucker, JR, Zaleznik, DF, Hopkins, CC, Dellinger, EP, Karchmer, AW, et al. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis and wound infection following breast surgery. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31(Suppl B):43–8.Google Scholar
249.Rimoldi, RL, Haye, W. The use of antibiotics for wound prophylaxis in spinal surgery. Orthop Clin North Am 1996;27(1:47–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
250.Bennion, RS, Hiatt, JR, Williams, RAWilson, SE. A randomized, prospective study of perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis for vascular access surgery. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 1985;26:270–4.Google Scholar
251.Kaiser, AB, Petracek, MRLea, JW 4th, Kernodle, DS, Roach, AC, Alford, WC Jr, et al. Efficacy of cefazolin, cefamandole, and gentamicin as prophylactic agents in cardiac surgery. Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial in 1030 patients. Ann Surg 1987;206(6:791–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
252.Miedzinski, LJ, Callaghan, JC, Fanning, EA, Gelfand, ET, Goldsand, G, Modry, D, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for open heart operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1990;50:800–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
253.Doebbeling, BN, Pfaller MA Kuhns KR Massanari, RM, Behrendt, DM, Wenzel RR Cardiovascular surgery prophylaxis. A randomized, controlled comparison of cefazolin and cefuroxime. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1990;99:981–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
254.Madsen, MS, Neumann, L, Andersen, JAPenicillin prophylaxis in complicated wounds of hands and feet: a randomized, double-blind trial. Injury 1996;27(4:275–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
255.Burnett, JW, Gustilo, RB, Williams, DN, Kind, AC. Prophylactic antibiotics in hip fractures. A double-blind, prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1980;62(3:457–62.Google Scholar
256.Nichols, RL, Webb, WR, Jones, JW, Smith, JW, LoCicero, J 3rd. Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis in high risk gastroduodenal operations. Am J Surg 1982;143:94–8.Google Scholar
257.Lewis, RT, Goodall, RG, Marien, C, Park, M, Lloyd-Smith, W, Wiegand, FM. Efficacy and distribution of single-dose preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in high-risk gastroduodenal surgery. Am J Surg 1991;34:117–22.Google Scholar
258.Young, RF, Lawner, PM. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of postoperative neurosurgical infections. A randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg 1987;66:701–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
259.Djindjian, M, Lepresle, E, Horns, JB. Antibiotic prophylaxis during prolonged clean neurosurgery. Results of a randomized double-blind study using oxacillin. J Neurosurg 1990;73:383–6.Google Scholar
260.Targarona, EM, Garau, J, Munoz-Ramos, C, Roset, F, Lite, J, Matas, E, et al. Single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis in patients at high risk for infection in biliary surgery: a prospective and randomized study comparing cefonicid with mezlocillin. Surgery 1990;107:327–34.Google Scholar
261.van Ek, B, Dijkmans, BA, van Dulken, H, van Furth, R. Antibiotic prophylaxis in craniotomy: a prospective double-blind placebo-controlled study. Scand J Infect Dis 1988;20:633–9.Google Scholar
262.Krige, JE, Isaacs, S, Stapleton, GN, McNally, J. Prospective, randomized study comparing amoxycillin-clavulanic acid and cefamandole for the prevention of wound infection in high-risk patients undergoing elective biliary surgery. J Infect 1992;22 (Suppl A):33–41.Google ScholarPubMed
263.Browder, W, Smith, JW, Vivoda, LM, Nicholas, RL. Nonperforative appendicitis: a continuing surgical dilemma. J Infect Dis 1989;159(6:1088–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
264.Piatt, R. Guidelines for perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis. In: Abrutyn, E, Goldmann, DAScheckler, WE, eds. Saunders Infection Control Reference Service. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1997. p. 229–34.Google Scholar
265.Sanderson, PJ. Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery: microbiological factors. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31(Suppl B):1–9.Google Scholar
266.Anonymous. Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. Med Lett Drugs Ther 1997;39(1012:97–102.Google Scholar
267.Scher, KS. Studies on the duration of antibiotic administration for surgical prophylaxis. Am Surg 1997;63:59–62.Google Scholar
268.Nichols, RL. Antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery. J Chemother 1989;1(3):170–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
269.Ehrenkranz, NJ. Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery: mechanisms, misconceptions, and mischief. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14(2:99–106.Google Scholar
270.Berkeley, AS, Freedman, KS, Ledger, WJ, Orr, JW, Benigno, BB, Gordon, SF, et al. Comparison of cefotetan and cefoxitin prophylaxis for abdominal and vaginal hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158: 706–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
271.Ehrenkranz, NJ, Blackwelder, WC, Pfaff, SJ, Poppe, D, Yerg, DE, Kaslow, RA. Infections complicating low-risk cesarean sections in community hospitals: efficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;162(2:337–43.Google Scholar
272.Soper, DE. Infections following cesarean section. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1993;5(4:517–20.Google Scholar
273.Enkin, M, Enkin, E, Chalmers, I, Hemminki, E. Prophylactic antibiotics in association with caesarean section. In: Chalmers, I, Enkin, M, Keirse, MJ, eds. Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth London: Oxford University; 1989. p. 1246–69.Google Scholar
274.Alen, JL, Rampon, JF, Wheeless, CR. Use of a prophylactic antibiotic in elective major gynecologic operations. Obstet Gynecol 1972;39:218–24.Google Scholar
275.The Multicenter Study Group. Single dose prophylaxis in patients undergoing vaginal hysterectomy: cefamandole versus cefotaxime. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:1198–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
276.Roy, S, Wilkins, J, Galaif, E, Azen, C. Comparative efficacy and safety of cefmetazole or cefoxitin in the prevention of postoperative infection following vaginal and abdominal hysterectomy. J Antimicrob Chemother 1989;23(Suppl D):109–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
277.Friese, S, Willems, FT, Loriaux, SM, Meewis, JM. Prophylaxis in gynaecological surgery: a prospective randomized comparison between single dose prophylaxis with amoxycillin/clavulanate and the combination of cefuroxime and metronidazole. J Antimicrob Chemother 1989;24(Suppl B):213–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
278.Senior, CC, Steigrad, SJ. Are preoperative antibiotics helpful in abdominal hysterectomy? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;154:1004–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
279.Hemsell, DL, Martin, JN Jr, Pasterek, JG 2d, Nobles, BJ, Hemsell, PG, Helman, N, et al. Single dose antimicrobial prophylaxis at abdominal hysterectomy. Cefamandole vs. cefotaxime. J Reprod Med 1988;33: 939–44.Google Scholar
280.Hemsell, DL, Hemsell, PG, Heard, ML, Nobles, BJ. Preoperative cefoxitin prophylaxis for elective abdominal hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:225–6.Google Scholar
281.DiPiro, JT, Cheung, RP, Bowden, TA Jr, Mansberger, JA. Single dose systemic antibiotic prophylaxis of surgical wound infections. Am J Surg 1986;152:552–9.Google Scholar
282.Trilla, A, Mensa, J. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis. In: Wenzel, RP, ed. Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1993. p. 665–82.Google Scholar
283.Ehrenkranz, NJ, Meakins, JL. Surgical infections. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1992. p. 685–710.Google Scholar
284.Nichols, RL. Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis. Med Clin North Am 1995;79(3:509–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
285.Classen, DC, Evans, RS, Pestotnik, SL, Horn, SD, Menlove, RL, Burke, JP. The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical-wound infection. N Engl J Med 1992;326(5:281–6.Google Scholar
286.McDonald, M, Grabsch, E, Marshall, C, Forbes, A. Single- versus multiple-dose antimicrobial prophylaxis for major surgery: a systematic review. Aust NZJ Surg 1998;68:388–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
287.Clarke, JS, Condon, RE, Bartlett, JG, Gorbach, SL, Nichols, RL, Ochi, S. Preoperative oral antibiotics reduce septic complications of colon operations: results of prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical study. Ann Surg 1977;186:251–9.Google Scholar
288.Condon, RE, Bartlett, JG, Greenlee, H, Schulte, WJ, Ochi, S, Abbe, Ret al. Efficacy of oral and systemic antibiotic prophylaxis in colorectal operations. Arch Surg 1983;118:496–502.Google Scholar
289.Bartlett, JG, Condon, RE, Gorbach, SL, Clarke, JS, Nichols, RL, Ochi, S. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on bowel preparation for elective colorectal operation: impact of oral antibiotic regimen on colonic flora, wound irrigation cultures and bacteriology of septic complications. Ann Surg 1978;188:249–54.Google Scholar
290.Da Costa, A, Kirkorian, G, Cucherat, M, Delahaye, F, Chevalier, P, Cerisier, A, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for permanent pacemaker implantation: a meta-analysis. Circulation 1998;97:1796–801.Google Scholar
291.Bumpous, JM, Johnson, JT. The infected wound and its management. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1995;28(5:987–1001.Google Scholar
292.Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16(2:105–13.Google Scholar
293.Forse, RA, Karam, C, MacLean, LD, Christou, NV. Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgery in morbidly obese patients. Surgery 1989;106:750–7.Google Scholar
294.Polk, HC, Wilson, MA. Systemic antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery. In: Fry, DE, ed. Surgical Infections. Boston: little, Brown and Co; 1995. p. 127–33.Google Scholar
295.Ayliffe, GA. Role of the environment of the operating suite in surgical wound infection. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 10):S800–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
296.Gryska, PF, O'Dea, AE. Postoperative streptococcal wound infection. The anatomy of an epidemic. JAMA 1970;213:1189–91.Google Scholar
297.Mclntyre, DM. An epidemic of Streptococcus pyogenes puerperal and postoperative sepsis with an unusual carrier site—the anus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968;101:308–14.Google Scholar
298.Lidwell, OM. Clean air at operation and subsequent sepsis in the joint. Clin Orthop 1986;211:91–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
299.American Institute of Architects. Guidelines for design and construction of hospital and health care facilities. Washington (DC): American Institiute of Architects Press; 1996.Google Scholar
300.Nichols, RL. The operating room. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1992. p. 461–73.Google Scholar
301.Laufman, H. The operating room. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1986. p. 315–23.Google Scholar
302.Sessler, DI, McGuire, J, Hynson, J, Moayeri, A, Heier, T. Thermoregulatory vasoconstriction during isoflurane anesthesia minimally decreases cutaneous heat loss. Anesthesiology 1992;76:670–5.Google Scholar
303.Hambraeus, AAerobiology in the operating room—a review. J Hosp Infect 1988;11(Suppl A):68–76.Google Scholar
304.Babb, JR, Lynam, P, Ayliffe, GARisk of airborne transmission in an operating theatre containing four ultraclean air units. J Hosp Infect 1995;31(3:159–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
305.Charnley, J. Post-operative infection after total hip replacement with special reference to contamination in the operating room. Internal Publication 38, Centre for Hip Surgery, Wrightington Hospital, Wigan, Lanes., UK; 1972.Google Scholar
306.Friberg, B. Ultraclean laminar airflow ORs. AORN J 1998;67:841–51.Google Scholar
307.Iidwell, OM, Elson, RALowbury, EJ, Whyte, W, Blowers, R, Stanley, SJ, et al. Ultraclean air and antibiotics for prevention of postoperative infection. A multicenter study of 8,052 joint replacement operations. Acta Orthop Scand 1987;58:4–13.Google Scholar
308.Nelson, JP. The operating room environment and its influence on deep wound infection. J Bone Joint Surg 1976;1–11.Google Scholar
309.Whyte, W. Infection control in hospital operating rooms. Cleanrooms 1993 Proceedings 1993:A57–66.Google Scholar
310.Charnley, J. A clean-air operating enclosure. Br J Surg 1964;51:202–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
311.Iidwell, OM, Lowbury, EJ, Whyte, W, Blowers, RStanley, SJ, Lowe, D. Effect of ultraclean air in operating rooms on deep sepsis in the joint after total hip or knee replacement: a randomised study. Br Med J 1982;285:10–4.Google Scholar
312.Taylor, GJ, Bannister, GC, Leeming, JPWound disinfection with ultraviolet radiation. J Hosp Infect 1995;30(2:85–93.Google Scholar
313.Bueno Cavanillas, ARodriguez-Contreras, R, Delgado Rodriguez, M, Moreno Abril, O, Lopez Gigosos, R, Guillen Solvas, J, et al. Preoperative stay as a risk factor for nosocomial infection. Eur J Epidemiol 1991;7(6:670–6.Google Scholar
314.Favero, MS, Bond, W. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital. In: Balows, AHausier, WJ Jr, Herrmann, KL, Isenberg, HD, Shadomy, HJ, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 5th ed. Washington (DC): American Society of Microbiology; 1991. p. 183–200.Google Scholar
315.U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens; final rule (29 CFR Part 1910.1030). Federal Register 1991;56:64004–182.Google Scholar
316.Rudnick, JR, Beck-Sague, CM, Anderson, RL, Schabie, C, Miller, JM, Jarvis, WR. Gram-negative bacteremia in open-heart-surgery patients traced to probable tap-water contamination of pressure-monitoring equipment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17(5:281–5.Google Scholar
317.Centers for Disease Control. Postsurgical infections associated with nonsterile implantable devices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1992;41(15):263.Google Scholar
318.Soto, LE, Bobadilla, M, Villalobos, Y, Sifuentes, J, Avelar, J, Arieta, M, et al. Post-surgical nasal cellulitis outbreak due to Mycobacterium chelonae. J Hosp Infect 1991;19(2:99–106.Google Scholar
319.Favero, MS, Manian, FAIs eliminating flash sterilization practical? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14(8:479–80.Google Scholar
320.American Society for Healthcare Central Service Personnel. Recommended practices for central service. Section one, continuous quality improvement. Chicago: American Hospital Association; 1993.Google Scholar
321.Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Flash sterilization: steam sterilization of patient care items for immediate use (ANSI/AAMI ST37-1996). Arlington (VA): Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation; 1996.Google Scholar
322.Rutala, WAGergen, MF, Weber, DJ. Evaluation of a rapid readout biological indicator for flash sterilization with three biological indicators and three chemical indicators. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14(7:390–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
323.Vesley, D, Langholz, AC, Rohlfing, SR, Foltz, WE. Fluorimetrie detection of a Bacillus stearothermophilus spore-bound enzyme, alpha-D-glucosi-dase, for rapid indication of flash sterilization failure. Appi Environ Microbiol 1992;58:717–9.Google Scholar
324.Rutala, WA, Jones, SM, Weber, DJ. Comparison of a rapid readout biological indicator for steam sterilization with four conventional biological indicators and five chemical indicators. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:423–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
325.Vesley, D, Nellis, MA, Allwood, PB. Evaluation of a rapid readout biological indicator for 121 degrees C gravity and 132 degrees C vacuum-assisted steam sterilization cycles. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:281–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
326.Smith, RF. What is the purpose of the scrub suit? [letter]. AORN J 1980;31(5):769.Google Scholar
327.Dineen, PThe role of impervious drapes and gowns preventing surgical infection. Clin Orthop 1973;96:210–2.Google Scholar
328.Ha'eri, GB, Wiley, AM. The efficacy of standard surgical face masks: an investigation using “tracer particles.” Clin Orthop 1980;148:160–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
329.Moylan, JA, Fitzpatrick, KT, Davenport, KE. Reducing wound infections. Improved gown and drape barrier performance. Arch Surg 1987;122:152–7.Google Scholar
330.Moylan, JA, Balish, E, Chan, J. Intraoperative bacterial transmission. Surg Forum 1974;25:29–30.Google Scholar
331.Copp, G, Mailhot, CB, Zalar, M, Slezak, L, Copp, AJ. Covergowns and the control of operating room contamination. Nurs Res 1986;35:263–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
332.Beck, WC. The surgical mask: another ‘sacred cow’? AORN J 1992;55:955–7.Google Scholar
333.Mitchell, NJ, Hunt, S. Surgical face masks in modern operating rooms— a costly and unnecessary ritual? J Hosp Infect 1991;18:239–42.Google Scholar
334.Tunevall, TG, Jorbeck, H. Influence of wearing masks on the density of airborne bacteria in the vicinity of the surgical wound. Eur J Surg 1992;158(5:263–6.Google Scholar
335.Tunevall, TG. Postoperative wound infections and surgical face masks: a controlled study. World J Surg 1991;15:383–8.Google Scholar
336.Orr, NW. Is a mask necessary in the operating theatre? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1981;63(6:390–2.Google Scholar
337.Lee, JT. Making surgical care better: hard work, small gains [editorial]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:6–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
338.Jarvis, WR, Bolyard, EA, Bozzi, CJ, Burwen, DR, Dooley, SW, Martin, LS, et al. Respirators, recommendations, and regulations: the controversy surrounding protection of health care workers from tuberculosis. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:142–6.Google Scholar
339.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Protect yourself against tuberculosis: a respiratory protection guide for health care workers (Publication No. 96-102). Cincinnati: Department of Health and Human Services (NIOSH); 1995.Google Scholar
340.Humphreys, H, Marshall, RJ, Ricketts, VE, Russell, AJ, Reeves, DS. Theatre over-shoes do not reduce operating theatre floor bacterial counts. J Hosp Infect 1991;17:117–23.Google Scholar
341.Weightman, NC, Banfield, KR. Protective over-shoes are unnecessary in a day surgery unit. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:1–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
342.Whyte, W, Hambraeus, A, Laurell, G, Hoborn, J. The relative importance of routes and sources of wound contamination during general surgery. I. Non-airborne. J Hosp Infect 1991;18(2:93–107.Google Scholar
343.Dodds, RD, Guy, PJ, Peacock, AM, Duffy, SR, Barker, SG, Thomas, MH. Surgical glove perforation. Br J Surg 1988;75(10:966–8.Google Scholar
344.Tokars, JI, Culver, DH, Mendelson, MH, Sloan, EP, Farber, BF, Fligner, DJ, et al. Skin and mucous membrane contacts with blood during surgical procedures: risk and prevention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:703–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
345.Short, LJ, Bell, DM. Risk of occupational infection with blood-borne pathogens in operating and delivery room settings. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:343–50.Google Scholar
346.Garibaldi, RA, Maglio, S, Lerer, T, Becker, D, Lyons, R. Comparison of nonwoven and woven gown and drape fabric to prevent intraoperative wound contamination and postoperative infection. Am J Surg 1986;152(5:505–9.Google Scholar
347.Muller, W, Jiru, P, Mach, RPolaschek, F, Fasching, W. The use of disposable draping materials in the operating room and its effect on the postoperative wound infection rate. Wein Klin Wochenschr 1989;101: 837–42.Google ScholarPubMed
348.Smith, JW, Nichols, RL. Barrier efficiency of surgical gowns. Are we really protected from our patients' pathogens? Arch Surg 1991;126(6): 756–63.Google Scholar
349.Artz, CP, Conn, JH, Howard, HS. Protection of the surgical wound with a new plastic Om JAMA 1960;174(14:1865–8.Google Scholar
350.Chiu, KY, Lau, SK, Fung, B, Ng, KH, Chow, SP. Plastic adhesive drapes and wound infection after hip fracture surgery. Aust N Z J Surg 1993;63(10:798–801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
351.American Society for Testing Materials. Standard Test Method for Resistance of Materials Used in Protective Clothing to Penetration by Synthetic Blood. American Society for Testing Materials 1998;F1670–98.Google Scholar
352.American Society for Testing Materials. Standard Test Method for Resistance of Materials Used in Protective Clothing to Penetration by Blood-borne Pathogens Using Phi-Xl 74 Bacteriophage Penetration as a Test System. American Society for Testing Materials 1997; F1671–976.Google Scholar
353.McCullough, EAMethods for determining the barrier efficacy of surgical gowns. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:368–74.Google Scholar
354.Lewis, JABrown, PL. Breaking the comfort barrier in impervious gowns. Surgical Services Management 1998;4(2:29–38.Google Scholar
355.Granzow, JW, Smith, JW, Nichols, RL, Waterman, RS, Muzik, AC. Evaluation of the protective value of hospital gowns against blood strike-through and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus penetration Am J Infect Control 1998;26:85–93.Google Scholar
356.Walter, CW, Kundsin, RB, Harding, AL, Page, LK. The infecter on the surgical team. Clin Neurosurg 1966;14:361–79.Google Scholar
357.Payne, RW. Severe outbreak of surgical sepsis due to Staphylococcus aureus of unusual type and origin. Br Med J 1967;4:17–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
358.Centers for Disease Control. Hospital outbreak of streptococcal wound infection—Utah. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1976;25:141.Google Scholar
359.Herwaldt, LAPottinger, J, Coffin, SANosocomial infections associated with anesthesia. In: Mayhall, CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. p. 655–75.Google Scholar
360.Bennett, SN, McNeil, MM, Bland, LAArduino, MJ, Villarino, ME, Perrotta, DM, et al. Postoperative infections traced to contamination of an intravenous anesthetic, propofol. N Engl J Med 1995;333:147–54.Google Scholar
361.Froggatt, JW, Dwyer, DM, Stephens, MA. Hospital outbreak of hepatitis C in patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy [abstract]. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago 1991;157:(347).Google Scholar
362.Centers for Disease Control. Postsurgical infections associated with an extrinsically contaminated intravenous anesthetic agent—California, Illinois, Maine, and Michigan, 1990. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1990;39:426-7, 433.Google Scholar
363.Daily, MJ, Dickey, JB, Packo, KH. Endogenous Candida endophthalmitis after intravenous anesthsia with propofol. Arch Ophthalmol 1991;109:10814.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
364.Villarino, ME, McNeill, MM, Hall, WN. Postsurgical infections associated with an extrinsically contaminated intravenous anesthetic agent [abstract]. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago 1991;156:(346).Google Scholar
365.American Association of Nurse Anesthetists. Infection Control Guide. Park Ridge (IL): American Association of Nurse Anesthetists; 1993.Google Scholar
366.American Society of Anesthesiologists. Recommendations for Infection Control for the Practice of Anesthesiology. Park Ridge (IL): American Society of Anesthesiologists; 1992.Google Scholar
367.Garner, JS, Favero, MS. CDC guideline for handwashing and hospital environmental control, 1985. Infect Control 1986;7:231–43.Google Scholar
368.Zacharias, A, Habib, RH. Delayed primary closure of deep sternal wound infections. Tex Heart Inst J 1996;23(3:211–6.Google Scholar
369.Smilanich, RP, Bonnet, I, Kirkpactrick, JRContaminated wounds: the effect of initial management on outcome. Am Surg 1995;61(5:427–30.Google Scholar
370.Blomstedt, GC. Infections in neurosurgery: a randomized comparison between silk and polyglycolic acid. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1985;76:90–3.Google Scholar
371.Scher, KS, Bernstein, JM, Jones, CW. Infectivity of vascular sutures. Am Surg 1985;51:577–9.Google Scholar
372.Durdey, P, Bucknall, TE. Assessment of sutures for use in colonic surgery: an experimental study. J R Soc Med 1984;77:472–7.Google Scholar
373.Chu, CC, Williams, DEEffects of physical configuration and chemical structure of suture materials on bacterial adhesion. A possible link to wound infection. Am J Surg 1984;147:197–204.Google Scholar
374.Askew, ARA comparison of upper abdominal wound closure with monofilament nylon and polyglycolic acid. Aust N Z J Surg 1983;53:353–6.Google Scholar
375.Kapadia, CR, Mann, JB, McGeehan, D, Jose Biglin, JE, Waxman, BP, Dudley, HABehaviour of synthetic absorbable sutures with and without synergistic enteric infection. Eur Surg Res 1983;15:67–72.Google Scholar
376.Bucknall, TE, Teare, L, Ellis, H. The choice of a suture to close abdominal incisions. Eur Surg Res 1983;15:59–66.Google Scholar
377.Bucknall, TE. Factors influencing wound complications: a clinical and experimental study. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1983;65:71–7.Google ScholarPubMed
378.Varma, S, Lumb, WV, Johnson, LW, Ferguson, HL. Further studies with polyglycolic acid (Dexon) and other sutures in infected experimental wounds. Am J Vet Res 1981;42:571–4.Google Scholar
379.Bucknall, TE, Ellis, H. Abdominal wound closure—a comparison of monofilament nylon and polyglycolic acid. Surgery 1981;89:672–7.Google Scholar
380.Dougherty, SH, Simmons, RL. The biology and practice of surgical drains. Part II. Curr Probi Surg 1992;29(9:635–730.Google Scholar
381.Cruse, PJE. Wound infections: epidemiology and clinical characteristics in surgical infectious disease. In: Howard, RJ, Simmons, RL, eds. Surgical Infectious Diseases.> 2nd ed. Norwalk (CT): Appleton and Lange; 1988. p. 319–29.Google Scholar
382.Drinkwater, CJ, Neil, MJ. Optimal timing of wound drain removal following total joint arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 1995;10(2:185–9.Google Scholar
383.Tollofsrud, SG, Gundersen, Y, Andersen, R. Perioperative hypothermia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1984;28:511–5.Google Scholar
384.Sessler, DI. Mild perioperative hypothermia. N Engl J Med 1997;336(24:1730–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
385.Kurz, ASessler, DI, Lenhardt, RPerioperative normothermia to reduce the incidence of surgical-wound infection and shorten hospitalization. Study of Wound Infection and Temperature Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334(19:1209–15.Google Scholar
386.Hunt, TKHopf, HW. Wound healing and wound infection. What surgeons and anesthesiologists can do. Surg Clin North Am 1997;77: 587–606.Google Scholar
387.Wenisch, C, Narzt, E, Sessler, DI, Parschalk, B, Lenhardt, R, Kurz, A, et al. Mild intraoperative hypothermia reduces production of reactive oxygen intermediates by polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Anesth Analg 1996;82:810–6.Google Scholar
388.Jonsson, K, Hunt, TK, Mathes, SJ. Oxygen as an isolated variable influences resistance to infection. Ann Surg 1988;208:783–7.Google Scholar
389.Jonsson, K, Jensen, JAGoodson, WH 3d, West, JM, Hunt, TKAssessment of perfusion in postoperative patients using tissue oxygen measurements. Br J Surg 1987;74:263–7.Google Scholar
390.Chang, N, Goodson, WH 3d, Gottrup, F, Hunt, TK. Direct measurement of wound and tissue oxygen tension in postoperative patients. Ann Surg 1983;197:470–8.Google Scholar
391.Knighton, DRHalliday, B, Hunt, TKOxygen as an antibiotic. The effect of inspired oxygen on infection. Arch Surg 1984;119:199–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
392.Ikeda, T, Tayefeh, F, Sessler, DI, Kurz, A, Plattner 0, Petschnigg, C, et al. Local radiant heating increases subcutaneous oxygen tension. Am J Surg 1998;175:33–7.Google Scholar
393.DuMortier, JJ. The resistance of healing wounds to infection. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1933;56:762–6.Google Scholar
394.Morain, WD, Colen, LB. Wound healing in diabetes mellitus. Clin Plast Surg 1990;17:493–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
395.American Hospital Association. Infection Control in the Hospital. Chicago: American Hospital Association; 1979. p. 161–2.Google Scholar
396.Castle, M, Ajemian, E. Hospital Infection Control: Principles and Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1987. p. 114–6.Google Scholar
397.Centers for Disease Control. Isolation Techniques for Use in Hospitals. Washington (DC): Public Health Service Publication; 1970.Google Scholar
398.Kravitz, M. Outpatient wound care. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 1996;8(2:217–33.Google Scholar
399.Condon, RE, Schulte, WJ, Malangoni, MA, Anderson-Teschendorf, MJ. Effectiveness of a surgical wound surveillance program. Arch Surg 1983;118:303–7.Google Scholar
400.Haley, RW, Culver, DH, White, JW, Morgan, WM, Emori, TG, Munn, VEThe efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121:182–205.Google Scholar
401.Lennard, ES, Hargiss, CO, Schoenknecht, FD. Postoperative wound infection surveillance by use of bacterial contamination catgeories. Am J Infect Control 1985;13:147–53.Google Scholar
402.Olson, MM, Lee, JT Jr.Continuous, 10-year wound infection surveillance. Results, advantages, and unanswered questions. Arch Surg 1990;125:794–803.Google Scholar
403.Olson, M, O'Connor, MO, Schwartz, ML. Surgical wound infections. A 5-year prospective study of 20,193 wounds at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center. Ann Surg 1984;199:253–9.Google Scholar
404.Weigelt, JA. Risk of wound infections in trauma patients. Am J Surg 1985;150:782–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
405.Weigelt, JA, Haley, RW, Seibert, C. Factors which influence the risk of wound infection in trauma patients. J Trauma 1987;27(7:774–81.Google Scholar
406.Anonymous. New classification of physical status. Anesthesiology 1963;24:111.Google Scholar
407.Owens, WD. ASA physical status classification: a study on consistency of ratings. Anesthesiology 1978;49:239–43.Google Scholar
408.National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Nosocomial infection rates for interhospital comparison: limitations and possible solutions. A report from tbe National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12: 609–21.Google Scholar
409.Cardo, DM, Falk, PS, Mayhall, CG. Validation of surgical wound surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:211–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
410.Horan, T, Gaynes, R, Culver, D, National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System, CDC. Development of predictive risk factors for nosocomial surgical site infections (SSI) [abstract]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15(Suppl):P46(M72).Google Scholar
411.Nichols, RL, Smith, JW, Klein, DB, Trunkey, DD, Cooper, RH, Adinolfi, MF, et al. Risk of infection after penetrating abdominal trauma. N Engl J Med 1984;311:1065–70.Google Scholar
412.Nichols, RL, Smith, JW, Robertson, GD, Muzik, AC, Pearce, P, Ozmen, V, et al. Prospective alterations in therapy for penetrating abdominal trauma. Arch Surg 1993;128:55–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
413.Horan, TC, Culver, DH, Gaynes, RP, National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System. Results of a multicenter study on risk factors for surgical site infections (SSI) following C-section (CSEC) [abstract]. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:84.Google Scholar
414.Roy, MC, Herwaldt, LA, Embrey, R, Kuhns, KWenzel, RP, Perl, TM. Does the NNIS risk index (NPJ) predict which patients develop wound infection (SWI) after cardiothoracic (CT) surgery? [abstract]. 34th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1994; Orlando, FL: 196.Google Scholar
415.Lee, TC. Surveillance in acute care and nonacute care settings: current issues and concepts. Am J Infect Control 1997;25(2:121–4.Google Scholar
416.Lee, JT. Wound infection surveillance. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1992;6(3:643–56.Google Scholar
417.Mead, PB, Pories, SE, Hall, EVacek, PM, Davis, JH Jr, Gamelli, RL. Decreasing the incidence of surgical wound infections. Validation of a surveillance-notification program. Arch Surg 1986;121:458–61.Google Scholar
418.Kerstein, M, Flower, M, Harkavy, LM, Gross, PASurveillance for postoperative wound infections: practical aspects. Am Surg 1978;44: 2104.Google Scholar
419.Poulsen, KB, Jepsen, OB. Failure to detect a general reduction of surgical wound infections in Danish hospitals. Dan Med Bull 1995;42:485–8.Google ScholarPubMed
420.Haley, RW, Schaberg, DRMcClish, DK, Quade, D, Crossley, KB, Culver, DH, et al. The accuracy of retrospective chart review in measuring nosocomial infection rates. Results of validation studies in pilot hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 1980;111(5):516–33.Google Scholar
421.Mulholland, SG, Creed, J, Dierauf, LABruun, JN, Blakemore, WS. Analysis and significance of nosocomial infection rates. Ann Surg 1974;180:827–30.Google Scholar
422.Wenzel, RP, Osterman, CAHunting, KJ, Gwaltney, JM Jr.Hospital-acquired infections. I. Surveillance in a university hospital. Am J Epidemiol 1976;103:251–60.Google Scholar
423.Simchen, E, Shapiro, JM, Michel, J, Sacks, T. Multivariate analysis of determinants of postoperative wound infection: a possible basis for intervention. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3(4:678–82.Google Scholar
424.Collier, C, Miller, DRBorst, M. Community hospital surgeon-specific infection rates. Infect Control 1987;8(6);249–54.Google Scholar
425.Ehrenkranz, NJ, Shultz, JM, Richter, EL. Recorded criteria as a “gold standard” for sensitivity and specificity estimates of surveillance of nosocomial infection: a novel method to measure job performance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:697–702.Google Scholar
426.Hirschhorn, LR, Currier, JS, Platt, R. Electronic surveillance of antibiotic exposure and coded discharge diagnoses as indicators of postoperative infection and other quality assurance measures. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:21–8.Google Scholar
427.Simchen, E, Wax, Y, Pevsner, B, Erdal, M, Michel j; Modan, M, et al. The Israeli Study of Surgical Infections (ISSI): I. Methods for developing a standardized surveillance system for a multicenter study of surgical infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1988;9(6:232–40.Google Scholar
428.Burns, SJ, Dippe, SE. Postoperative wound infections detected during hospitalization and after discharge in a community hospital. Am J Infect Control 1982;10(2:60–5.Google Scholar
429.Laxson, LB, Blaser, MJ, Parkhurst, SM. Surveillance for the detection of nosocomial infections and the potential for nosocomial outbreaks. Am J Infect Control 1984;12(6:318–24.Google Scholar
430.Mertens, R, Jans, C, Kurz, X. A computerized nationwide network for nosocomial infection surveillance in Belgium. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:171–9.Google Scholar
431.Ehrenkranz, NJ. Surgical wound infection occurrence in clean operations; risk stratification for interhospital comparisons. Am J Med 1981;(70):909–14.Google Scholar
432.Baker, C, Luce, J, Chenoweth, C, Friedman, C. Comparison of case-finding methodologies for endometritis after cesarean section. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:27–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
433.Gaynes, RP, Horan, TC. Surveillance of nosocomial infections. In: Mayhall, CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. p. 1017–31.Google Scholar
434.Horan, TC, Emori, TG. Definitions of key terms used in the NNIS system. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:112–6.Google Scholar
435.Polk, BF, Tager, IB, Shapiro, M, Goren-White, B, Goldstein, P, Schoenbaum, SC. Randomised clinical trial of perioperative cefazolin in preventing infection after hysterectomy. Lancet 1980;1:437–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
436.Salem, RJ, Johnson, J, Devitt, P. Short term metronidazole therapy contrasted with povidone-iodine spray in the prevention of wound infection after appendicectomy. Br J Surg 1979;66:430–1.Google Scholar
437.Walsh, AL, Roberts, FJ, Bryce, EAPost-discharge surveillance of surgical wound infections [letter]. Can J Inf ed Control 1996;11(1):29.Google Scholar
438.Brown, RB, Bradley, S, Opitz, E, Cipriani, D, Pieczarka, R, Sands, M. Surgical wound infections documented after hospital discharge. Am J Infect Control 1987;15:54–8.Google Scholar
439.Rosendorf, LL, Octavio, J, Estes, JEEffect of methods of postdischarge wound infection surveillance on reported infection rates. Am J Infect Control 1983;11(6):226–9.Google Scholar
440.Ferraz, EM, Ferraz, AACoelho, HS, Pereira Viana, V, Sobral, SM, Vasconcelos, MD, et al. Postdischarge surveillance for nosocomial wound infection: does judicious monitoring find cases? Am J Infect Control 1995;23:2904.Google Scholar
441.Andenaes, K, Amland, PF, Lingaas, E, Abyholm, F, Samdai, F, Giercksky, KE. A prospective, randomized surveillance study of postoperative wound infections after plastic surgery: a study of incidence and surveillance methods. Plast Reconstr Surg 1995;96(4:948–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
442.Keeling, NJ, Morgan, MW. Inpatient and post-discharge wound infections in general surgery. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1995;77:245–7.Google Scholar
443.Manian, FA, Meyer, L. Adjunctive use of monthly physician questionnaires for surveillance of surgical site infections after hospital discharge and in ambulatory surgical patients: report of a seven-year experience. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:3904.Google Scholar
444.Manian, FA, Meyer, L. Comparison of patient telephone survey with traditional surveillance and monthly physician questionnaires in monitoring surgical wound infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:216–8.Google Scholar
445.Reimer, K, Gleed, C, Nicolle, LE. The impact of postdischarge infection on surgical wound infection rates. Infect Control 1987;8(6:237–40.Google Scholar
446.Sands, K, Vineyard, G, Platt, R. Surgical site infections occuring after hospital discharge. J Infect Dis 1996;173:963–70.Google Scholar
447.Weigelt, JA, Dryer, D, Haley, RW. The necessity and efficiency of wound surveillance after discharge. Arch Surg 1992;127:77–82.Google Scholar
448.Gravel-Tropper, D, Oxley, C, Memish, Z, Garber, GE. Underestimation of surgical site infection rates in obstetrics and gynecology. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:22–6.Google Scholar
449.Taylor, S, Pearce, P, McKenzie, M, Taylor, GD. Wound infection in total joint arthroplasty: effect of extended wound surveillance on wound infection rates. Can J Surg 1994;37(3:217–20.Google ScholarPubMed
450.Hulton, IJ, Olmsted, RN, Treston-Aurand, J, Craig, CP. Effect of postdischarge surveillance on rates of infectious complications after cesarean section. Am J Infect Control 1992;20:198–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
451.Law, DJ, Mishriki, SF, Jeffery, PJ. The importance of surveillance after discharge from hospital in the diagnosis of postoperative wound infection. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1990;72:207–9.Google Scholar
452.Donovan, IA, Ellis, D, Gatehouse, D, Little, G, Grimley, R, Armistead, S, et al. One-dose antibiotic prophylaxis against wound infection after appen-dicectomy: a randomized trial of clindamycin, cefazolin sodium and a placebo. Br J Surg 1979;66:193–6.Google Scholar
453.Bates, T, Down, RH, Houghton, MC, Lloyd, GJ. Topical ampicillin in the prevention of wound infection after appendicectomy. Br J Surg 1974;61:489–92.Google Scholar
454.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Evaluation of blunt suture needles in preventing percutaneous injuries among health-care workers during gynecologic surgical procedures, New York City, March 1993-June 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997;46(2:25–9.Google Scholar
455.Fanning, C, Johnston, BLMacDonald, S, LeFort-Jost, S, Dockerty, E. Postdischarge surgical site infection surveillance. Can J Infect Control 1995;10(3:75–9.Google ScholarPubMed
456.Holbrook, KF, Nottebart, VF, Hameed, SR, Platt, RAutomated postdischarge surveillance for postpartum and neonatal nosocomial infections. Am J Med 1991;91 (Suppl 3B):125S–30S.Google Scholar
457.Zoutman, D, Pearce, P, McKenzie, M, Taylor, G. Surgical wound infections occuring in day surgery patients. Am J Infect Control 1990;18: 277–82.Google Scholar
458.Seaman, M, Lammers, R. Inability of patients to self-diagnose wound infections. J Emerg Med 1991;9:215–9.Google Scholar
459.Goulbourne, IA, Ruckley, CV. Operations for hernia and varicose veins in a day-bed unit. Br Med J 1979;2:712–4.Google Scholar
460.Garvey, JM, Buffenmyer, C, Rycheck, RR, Yee, R, McVay, J, Harger, JH. Surveillance for postoperative infections in outpatient gynecologic surgery. Infect Control 1986;7(2:54–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
461.Flanders, E, Hinnant, JR. Ambulatory surgery postoperative wound surveillance. Am J Infect Control 1990;18(5:336–9.Google Scholar
462.Gentry, LO, Zeluff, BJ, Cooley, DA. Antibiotic prophylaxis in open-heart surgery: a comparison of cefamandole, cefuroxime, and cefazolin. Ann Thorac Surg 1988;46:167–71.Google Scholar
463.Maki, DG, Bohn, MJ, Stolz, SM, Kroncke, GM, Archer, CW, Myerowitz, PD. Comparative study of cefazolin, cefamandole, and vancomycin for surgical prophylaxis in cardiac and vascular operations. A double-blind randomized trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1992;104:1423–34.Google Scholar
464.Haines, SJ, Walters, CC. Antibiotic prophylaxis for cerebrospinal fluid shunts: a metanalysis. Neurosurgery 1994;34(1:87–92.Google Scholar
465.Langley, JM, LeBlanc, JC, Drake, J, Milner, REfficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis in placement of cerebrospinal fluid shunts: meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:98–103.Google Scholar
466.Starr, MB, Lally, JM. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for ophthalmic surgery. Surv Ophthalmol 1995;39:485–501.Google Scholar
467.Gatell, JM, Riba, J, Lozano, MLMana, J, Ramon, RGarcia Sanmiguel, J. Prophylactic cefamandole in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1984;66:1219–22.Google Scholar
468.Kent, KC, Bartek, S, Kuntz, KM, Anninos, E, Skillman, JJ. Prospective study of wound complications in continuous infrainguinal incisions after lower limb arterial reconstruction: incidence, risk factors, and cost Surgery 1996;119(4:378–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
469.Wymenga, AB, van Horn, JR, Theeuwes A, Muytjens, HL, Slooff, TJ. Perioperative factors associated with septic arthritis after arthroplasty. Prospective multicenter study of 362 knee and 2,651 hip operations. Acta Orthop Scand 1992;63(6:665–71.Google Scholar
470.Stambough, JL, Beringer, D. Postoperative wound infections complicating adult spine surgery. J Spinal Disord 1992;5(3):277–85.Google Scholar
471.Trippel, SB. Antibiotic-impregnated cement in total joint arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1986;68A;1297–302.Google Scholar
472.Nungu, KS, Olerud, C, Rehnberg, LLarsson, S, Nordell, P, Allvin, I, et al. Prophylaxis with oral Cefadroxil versus intravenous cefuroxime in trochanteric fracture surgery. A clinical multicentre study. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 1995;114(6:303–7.Google Scholar
473.Norden, CW. Antibiotic prophylaxis in orthopedic surgery. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 10):S842–6.Google Scholar
474.Aznar, RMateu, M, Miro, JM, Gatell, JM, Gimferrer, JM, Aznar, E, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in non-cardiac thoracic surgery: cefazolin versus placebo. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1991;5:515–8.Google Scholar
475.Cant, PJ, Smyth, S, Smart, DO. Antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated for chest stab wounds requiring closed tube thoracostomy. Br J Surg 1993;80:464–6.Google Scholar
476.Pitt, HA, Postier, RG, MacGowan, AW, Frank, LW, Surmak, AJ, Sitzman, JV, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics in vascular surgery. Topical, systemic, or both? Ann Surg 1980;192:356–64.Google Scholar
477.Kaiser, AB, Clayson, KR, Mulherin, JL Jr, Roach, AC, Allen, TR, Edwards, WH, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in vascular surgery. Ann Surg 1978;188:283–9.Google Scholar
478.Bauer, T, Vennits, B, Holm, B, Hahn-Pedersen, J, Lysen, D, Galatius, H, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in acute nonperforated appendicitis. The Danish Multicenter Study Group II. Ann Surg 1989;209:307–11.Google Scholar
479.Skipper, D, Corder, AP, Karran, SJ. A randomized prospective study to compare ceftizoxime with cephradine as single dose prophylaxis in elective cholecystectomy. J Hosp Infect 1991;17:303–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
480.Kaufman, Z, Engelberg, M, Eliashiv, A, Reiss, RSystemic prophylactic antibiotics in elective biliary surgery. Arch Surg 1984;119:1002–4.Google Scholar
481.Grant, MD, Jones, RC, Wilson, SE, Bombeck, CT, Flint, LM, Jonasson, O, et al. Single dose cephalosporin prophylaxis in high-risk patients undergoing surgical treatment of the biliary tract. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1992;174:347–54.Google Scholar
482.Lewis, RT, Goodall, RG, Marien, C, Park, M, Lloyd-Smith, W, Wiegand, FM. Biliary bacteria, antibiotic use, and wound infection in surgery of the gallbladder and common bile duct. Arch Surg 1987;122:44–7.Google Scholar
483.Saltzstein, EC, Mercer, LC, Peacock, JB, Dougherty, SH. Outpatient open cholecystectomy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1992;174(3:173–5.Google Scholar
484.Meijer, WS, Schmitz, PI, Jeekel, J. Meta-analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials of antibiotic prophylaxis in biliary tract surgery. Br J Surg 1990;77:283–90.Google Scholar
485.Kaiser, AB, Herrington, JL Jr, Jacobs, JKMulherin, JL Jr, Roach, AC, Sawyers, JL. Cefoxitin versus erythromycin, neomycin, and cefazolin in colorectal operations. Importance of the duration of the surgical procedure. Ann Surg 1983;198:525–30.Google Scholar
486.Schoetz, DJ Jr, Roberts, PL, Murray, JJ, Coller, JA, Veidenheimer, MC. Addition of parenteral cefoxitin to regimen of oral antibiotics for elective colorectal operations. A randomized prospective study. Ann Surg 1990;212:209–12.Google Scholar
487.Edmondson, HT, Passing, JP. Prophylactic antibiotics in colon surgery. Arch Surg 1983;118:227–31.Google Scholar
488.Wapnick, S, Guinto, RReizis, I, LeVeen, HH. Reduction of postoperative infection in elective colon surgery with preoperative administration of kanamycin and erythromycin. Surgery 1979;85:317–21.Google Scholar
489.Washington, JA 2d, Dearing, WH, Judd, ES, Elveback, LR. Effect of preoperative antibiotic regimen on development of infection after intestinal surgery. Prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Ann Surg 1974;108:567–72.Google Scholar
490.Maki, DG, Aughey, DRComparative study of cefazolin, cefoxitin, and ceftizoxime for surgical prophylaxis in colo-rectal surgery. J Antimicrob Chemother 1982;10(Suppl C):281–7.Google Scholar
491.Rotman, N, Hay, JM, Lacaine, F, Fagniez, PL, The Association de Recherche en Chirurgie Cooperative Group. Prophylactic antibiothera-py in abdominal surgery. First- vs third-generation cephalosporins. Arch Surg 1989;124:323–7.Google Scholar
492.Lewis, RT, Allan, CM, Goodall, RG, Marien, C, Park, M, Lloyd-Smith, W, et al. Cefamandole in gastroduodenal surgery: a controlled, prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Can J Surg 1982;25(5:561–3.Google Scholar
493.McArdle, CS, Morran, CG, Anderson, JRPettit, L, Gemmell, CG, Sleigh, JD, et al. Oral ciprofloxacin as prophylaxis in gastroduodenal surgery. J Hosp Infect 1995;30(3:211–6.Google Scholar
494.Grandis, JRVickers, RM, Rihs, JD, Yu, VL, Johnson, JT, Efficacy of topical amoxicillin plus clavulanate/ticarcillin plus clavulanate and clindamycin in contaminated head and neck surgery: effect of antibiotic spectra and duration of therapy. J Infect Dis 1994;170:729–32.Google Scholar
495.Johnson, JT, Yu, VL, Myers, EN, Wagner, RLAn assessment of the need for gram-negative bacterial coverage in antibiotic prophylaxis for oncological head and neck surgery. J Infect Dis 1987;155(2:331–3.Google Scholar
496.Elledge, ES, Whiddon, RG Jr, Fraker, JT, Stambaugh, KI. The effects of topical oral clindamycin antibiotic rinses on the bacterial content of saliva on healthy human subjects. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1991;105:836–9.Google Scholar
497.Johnson, JT, Yu, VLMyers, EN, Wagner, RL, Sigler, BACefazolin vs mox-alactam? A double-blind randomzied trial of cephalosporins in head and neck surgery. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1986;112:151–3.Google Scholar
Association of Operating Room Nurses. Standards, Recommended Practices, Guidelines. Denver: Association of Operating Room Nurses; 1999.Google Scholar
Larson, ELAPIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:251–69.Google Scholar
Association of Operating Room Nurses. Recommended practices for skin preparation of patients. AORN J 1996;64:813–6.Google Scholar
Rutala, WAAPIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants. Am J Infect Control 1990;18:99–117.Google Scholar
Favero, MS, Bond, W. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital. In: Balows, A, Hausier, WJ Jr, Herrmann, KL, Isenberg, HD, Shadomy, HJ, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 5th ed. Washington (DC): American Society for Microbiology; 1991. p. 183–200.Google Scholar
Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Flash sterilization: steam sterilization of patient care items for immediate use (ANSI/AAMI ST37-1996). Arlington (VA): Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation; 1996.Google Scholar
American Institute of Architects Committee. Guidelines for design and construction of hospital and health care facilities. Washington (DC): American Institute of Architects Press; 1996.Google Scholar
Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Selection of surgical gowns and drapes in health care facilities (AAMITIR No. 11-1994). Arlington (VA): Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation; 1994.Google Scholar
Platt, RGuidelines for perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis. In: Abrutyn, E, Goldmann, DAScheckler, WE, eds. Saunders Infection Control Reference Service. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1997. p. 229–34.Google Scholar
Classen, DC, Evans, RS, Pestotnik, SL, Horn, SD, Menlove, RL, Burke, JP. The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical-wound infection. NEngl J Med 1992;326:281–6.Google Scholar
Wong, ES. Surgical site infections. In: Mayhall, CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. p. 154–74.Google Scholar
Hochberg, J, Murray, GF. Principles of operative surgery: antisepsis, technique, sutures, and drains. In: Sabiston, DC Jr, ed. Textbook of Surgery: The Biological Basis of Modern Surgical Practice. 15th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1997. p. 253–63.Google Scholar
Roy, MC. Surgical-site infections after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: discriminating site-specific risk factors to improve prevention efforts. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:229–33.Google Scholar
Herwaldt, LA, Pottinger, J, Coffin, SANosocomial infections associated with anesthesia. In: Mayhall, CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. p. 655–75.Google Scholar
Gaynes, RP, Horan, TC. Surveillance of nosocomial infections. In: Mayhall, CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. p. 1017–31.Google Scholar
Roy, MC, Perl, TM. Basics of surgical-site infection surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:659–68.Google Scholar
Lee, JT. Surgical wound infections: surveillance for quality improvement In: Fry, DE, ed. Surgical Infictions. Boston: Little, Brown and Co; 1995. p. 145–59.Google Scholar
Meier, PAInfection control issues in same-day surgery. In: Wenzel, RP, ed. Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1997. p. 261–82.Google Scholar
Burke, JRInfections of cardiac and vascular prostheses. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Raven; 1998. p. 599–612.Google Scholar
Lew, DP, Waldvogel, FAInfections of skeletal prostheses. In: Bennett, JV, Brachman, PS, eds. Hospital Infections. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Raven; 1998. p. 613–20.Google Scholar
Nafziger Da Saravolatz, LD. Infection in implantable prosthetic devices. In: Wenzel, RP, ed. Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1997. p. 889–923.Google Scholar