Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T04:27:12.083Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Epidemiologic Typing Systems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

Joel Maslow  and
Maury Ellis Mulligan
Joel Maslow
Affiliation:
Veterans' Affairs Medical Center and Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
Maury Ellis Mulligan*
Affiliation:
Veterans' Affairs Medical Center, Long Beach, California University of California, Irvine, California
*
(111-ID), VA Medical Center, 5901 E 7th St, Long Beach, CA 90822. 96-SX-042
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Microbial strain typing is a useful adjunct to clinical epidemiology. Phenotypic typing systems examine expressed characteristics, whereas genotypic systems, including recent PCR-based systems, examine chromosomal or plasmid DNA. Typing systems have evaluated bacteria, fungi, and viruses successfully. The criteria used to assess the utility of each system include typeability, reproducibility, and discriminatory power.

Type
Practical Healthcare Epidemiology
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 17 , Issue 9 , September 1996 , pp. 595 - 604
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Maslow, JN, Mulligan, ME, Arbeit, RD. Molecular epidemiology: the application of contemporary techniques to typing bacteria. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:153–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2. Sader, HS, Hollis, RJ, Pfaller, MA. The use of molecular techniques in the epidemiology and control of infectious diseases. Clin Lab Med 1995;15:407–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3. Arbeit, RD. Laboratory procedures for the epidemiologic analysis of microorganisms. In: Murray, PR, Baron, EJ, Pfaller, MA, Tenover, FC, Yolken, RH, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1994:190–208.Google Scholar
4. Tabaqchali, S. Epidemiologic markers of Clostridium difficile . Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:192S–199S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5. Tanner, AR. Characterization of Wolinella species, Campylobacter concisus, Bacteroides gracilis, and Eikenella corrodens by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1986;24:562–565.Google Scholar
6. Kreiswirth, B, Kornblum, J, Arbeit, RD, et al. Evidence for a clonal origin of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus . Science 1993;259:227–230.Google Scholar
7. Gouby, A, Carles-Nurit, M-J, Bouziges, N, et al. Use of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for investigation of hospital outbreaks of Acinetobacter baumanii . J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1588–1591.Google Scholar
8. Seifert, H, Schulze, A, Baginski, R, Pulverer, G. Comparison of four different methods for epidemiologic typing of Acinetobacter baumanii . J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1816–1819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9. Vila, J, Marcos, A, Llovet, T, Coll, P, Jimenez De Anta, T. A comparative study of ribotyping and arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction for investigation of hospital outbreaks of Acinetobacter baumanii infection. J Med Microbiol 1994;41:244–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10. Mulligan, ME, Kwok, RYY, Molitoris, D, et al. Immunoblot typing of Bacteroides gracilis . Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:130S–131S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11. Bedzyk, LA, Shoemaker, NB, Young, KE, Salyers, AA. Insertion and excision of Bacteroides conjugative chromosomal elements. J Bacteriol 1992;174:166–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12. Podglajen, I, Breuil, J, Casin, I, Collatz, E. Genotypic identification of two groups within the species Bacteroides fragilis by ribotyping and by analysis of PCR-generated fragment patterns and insertion sequence content. J Bacteriol 1995;177:5270–5275.Google Scholar
13. Matar, GM, Swaminathan, B, Hunter, SB, Slater, LN, Welch DF Polymerase chain reaction-based restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of a fragment of the ribosomal operon from Rochalimaea species for subtyping. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1730–1734.Google Scholar
14. Mills, SD, Kurjancczyk, LA, Shames, B, Hennessy, JN, Penner, JL. Antigenic shifts in serotype determinants of Campylobacter coli are accompanied by changes in the chromosomal DNA restriction endonuclease digestion pattern. J Med Microbiol 1991;35:168–173.Google Scholar
15. Vanrompay, D, Andersen, AA, Ducatelle, R, Haesebrouck, F. Serotyping of European isolates of Chlamydia psittaci from poultry and other birds. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:134–137.Google Scholar
16. Black, CM, Johnson, JE, Farshy, CE, Brown, TM, Berdal, BP. Antigen variation among strains of Chlamydia pneumoniae . J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:1312–1316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17. Timms, P, Eaves, FW, Girjes, AA, Lavin, MF. Comparison of Chlamydia psittaci isolates by restriction endonuclease and DNA probe analyses. Infect Immun 1988;56:287–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18. Scieux, C, Grimont, F, Regnault, B, Grimont, PAD. DNA fingerprinting of Chlamydia trachomatis by use of ribosomal RNA, oligonucleotide and randomly cloned DNA probes. Res Microbiol 1992;143:755–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19. Mulligan, ME, Peterson, LR, Kwok, RYY, Clabots, CR, Gerding, DN. Immunoblots and plasmid fingerprints compared with serotyping and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for typing Clostridium difficile . J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:41–46.Google Scholar
20. Sell, TL, Schaberg, DR, Fekety, FR. Bacteriophage and bacteriocin typing scheme for Clostridium difficile . J Clin Microbiol 1983;17:1148–1152.Google Scholar
21. Kristjánsson, M, Samore, MH, Gerding, DN, et al. Comparison of restriction endonuclease analysis, ribotyping, and pulsed field gel electrophoresis for molecular differentiation of Clostridium difficile strains. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1963–1969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22. Silva, J, Tang, YJ, Gumerlock, PH. Genotyping of Clostridium difficile isolates. J Infect Dis 1994;169:661–664.Google Scholar
23. Garaizar, J, Kaufman, ME, Pitt, TL. Comparison of ribotyping with conventional methods for the type identification of Enterobacter cloacae . J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:1303–1307.Google Scholar
24. Mulligan, ME, Shimoda, K, Orakcilar, G, et al. Immunoblot typing of Enterobacter species used to examine epidemiology and development of resistance. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology; May 26-30, 1992; New Orleans, LA.Google Scholar
25. Markowitz, SM, Smith, SM, Williams, DS. Retrospective analysis of plasmid patterns in a study of burn unit outbreaks of infection due to Enterobacter cloacae . J Infect Dis 1983;148:18–23.Google Scholar
26. Haertl, R, Bandlow, G. Epidemiological fingerprinting of Enterobacter cloacae by small-fragment restriction endonuclease analysis and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of genomic restriction fragments. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:128–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27. Bingen, E, Denamur, E, Lambert-Zechovsky, N, et al. Rapid genotyping shows the absence of cross-contamination in Enterobacter cloacae nosocomial infections. J Hosp Infect 1992;21:95–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28. Kostman, JR, Alden, MB, Mair, M, et al. A universal approach to bacterial molecular epidemiology by polymerase chain reaction ribotyping. J Infect Dis 1995;171:204–208.Google Scholar
29. Kühnen, E, Richter, F, Richter, K, Andries, L. Establishment of a typing system for group D streptococci. Zbl Bakt Hyg 1988;A267:322–330.Google Scholar
30. Patterson, JE, Wanger, A, Zscheck, KK, Zervos, MJ, Murray, BE. Molecular epidemiology of ß-lactamas-producing enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:302–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31. Hall, LMC, Duke, B, Guiney, M, Williams, R. Typing of Enterococcus species by DNA restriction fragment analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:915–919.Google Scholar
32. Murray, BE, Singh, KV, Heath, JD, Sharma, BR, Weinstock, GM. Comparison of genomic DNAs of different enterococcal isolates using restriction endonucleases with infrequent recognition sites. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:2059–2063.Google Scholar
33. Arthur, M, Arbeit, RD, Kim, C, et al. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms among uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolates: pap-related sequences compared with rrn operons. Infect Immun 1990;58:471–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34. Maslow, JN, Whittam, T, Wilson, RA, et al. Clonal relationship among bloodstream isolates of Escherichia coli . Infect Immun 1995;63:2409–2417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35. Arbeit, RD, Arthur, M, Dunn, RD, et al. Resolution of recent evolutionary divergence among Escherichia coli from related lineages: the application of pulsed field electrophoresis to molecular epidemiology. J Infect Dis 1990;161:230–235.Google Scholar
36. Versalovic, J, Kapur, V, Koeuth, T, et al. DNA fingerprinting of pathogenic bacteria by fluorophore-enhanced repetitive sequence-based polymerase chain reaction. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1995;119:23–29.Google Scholar
37. Musser, JM, Kroll, JS, Moxon, ER, Selander, RK. Evolutionary genetics of the encapsulated strains of Haemophilus influenzae . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988;85:7758–7762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38. Brenner, DJ, Mayer, LW, Carlone, GM, et al. Biochemical, genetic, and epidemiologic characteristics of Haemophilus influenzae biogroup aegyptius (Haemophilus aegyptius) strains associated with Brazilian purpuric fever. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:1524–1534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39. Arbeit, RD, Dunn, R, Maslow, JN, Goldstein, R, Musser, JM. Resolution of evolutionary divergence and epidemiologic relatedness among H influenzae type b (HIB) by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Abstracts of the 30th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; October 21-24, 1990; Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar
40. Myers, LE, Silva, SVPS, Procunier, JD, Little, PB. Genomic fingerprinting of ‘Haemophilus somnus’ isolates by using a random-amplified polymorphic DNA assay. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:512–517.Google Scholar
41. Patton, CM, Wachsmuth, IK, Evins, GM, et al. Evaluation of 10 methods to distinguish epidemic-associated Campylobacter strains. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:680–688.Google Scholar
42. Stanley, J, Linton, D, Sutherland, K, Jones, C, Owen, RJ. High-resolution genotyping of Campylobacter coli identifies clones of epidemiologic and evolutionary sequence. J Infect Dis 1995;172:1130–1134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43. Maslow, JN, Brecher, S, Adams, KS, et al. Relationship between indole production and the differentiation of Klebsiella species: indole-positive and negative isolates of Klebsiella determined to be clonal. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:2000–2003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44. Lema, M, Brown, A. Electrophoretic characterization of soluble protein extracts of Legionella pneumophila and other members of the family Legionellaceae . J Clin Microbiol 1983;17:1132–1140.Google Scholar
45. Pfaller, M, Hollis, R, Johnson, W, et al. The application of molecular and immunologic techniques to study the epidemiology of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1989;12:295–302.Google Scholar
46. van Belkum, A, Struelens, M, Quint, W. Typing of Legionella pneumophila strains by polymerase chain reaction-mediated DNA fingerprinting. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:2198–2200.Google Scholar
47. Saunders, NA, Harrison, TG, Haththotuwa, A, Taylor, AG. A comparison of probes for restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) typing of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 strains. J Med Microbiol 1994;41:152–158.Google Scholar
48. Schoonmaker, D, Heimberger, T, Birkhead, G. Comparison of ribotyping and restriction enzyme analysis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for distinguishing Legionella pneumophila isolates obtained during a nosocomial outbreak. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1491–1498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49. Arbeit, RD, Slutsky, A, Barber, TW, et al. Genetic diversity among strains of Mycobacterium avium causing monoclonal and polyclonal bacteremia in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1993;167:1384–1390.Google Scholar
50. Yakrus, MA, Reeves, MW, Hunter, SB. Characterization of isolates of Mycobacterium avium serotypes 4 and 8 from patients with AIDS by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1474–1478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51. Jensen, AG, Bennedsen, J, Rosdahl, VT. Plasmid profiles of Mycobacterium avium/intracellulare isolated from patients with AIDS or cervical lymphadenitis and from environmental samples. Scand J Infect Dis 1989;21:645–649.Google Scholar
52. Guerrero, C, Bernasconi, C, Burki, D, Bodmer, T, Telenti, A. A novel insertion element from Mycobacterium avium, IS1245, is a specific target for analysis of strain relatedness. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:304–307.Google Scholar
53. Snider, DE, Jones, WD, Good, RC. The usefulness of phage typing Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984;130:1095–1099.Google Scholar
54. Collins, DM, De Lisle, GW. DNA restriction endonuclease analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG. J Gen Microbiol 1984;130:1019–1021.Google ScholarPubMed
55. Edlin, BR, Tokars, JI, Grieco, MH, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among hospitalized patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1514–1521.Google Scholar
56. van Soolingen, D, Hermans, PWM, de Haas, PEW, Soll, DR, van Embden, JDA. Occurrence and stability of insertion sequences in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains: evaluation of an insertion sequence-dependent DNA polymorphism as a tool in the epidemiology of tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:2578–2586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57. Zhang, Y, Mazurek, GH, Cave, MD, et al. DNA polymorphisms in strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis: a tool for epidemiology. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1551–1556.Google Scholar
58. Haas, WH, Butler, WR, Woodley, CL, Crawford, JT. Mixed-linker polymerase chain reaction: a new method for rapid fingerprinting of isolates of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1293–1298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59. Tsang, AY, Denner, JC, Brennan, PJ, McClatchy, JK. Clinical and epidemiological importance of typing of Mycobacterium avium complex isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:479–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60. Labidi, A, Dauguet, C, Goh, KS, David, HL. Plasmid profiles of Mycobacterium fortuitum complex isolates. Curr Microbiol 1984;11:235–240.Google Scholar
61. Burns, DN, Wallace, RJ Jr, Schultz, ME, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of respiratory tract colonization with Mycobacterium fortuitum: demonstration of the usefulness of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis in an epidemiologic investigation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:1153–1159.Google Scholar
62. Kauppinen, J, Mäntyjärvi, R, Katila, M-L. Random amplified polymorphic DNA genotyping of Mycobacterium malmoense . J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1827–1829.Google Scholar
63. Wedege, E, Caugant, DA, Fraholm, LO, Zollinger, WD. Characterization of serogroup A and B strains of Neisseria meningitidis with serotype 4 and 21 monoclonal antibodies and by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:1486–1492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64. Ng, L-K, Carballo, M, Dillon, J-AR. Differentiation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates requiring proline, citrulline, and uracil by plasmid content, serotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:1039–1041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65. Schmidt, WC, Jefferies, CD. Bacteriophage typing of Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Proteus morganii . Appl Microbiol 1974;27:47–53.Google Scholar
66. Kappos, T, John, MA, Hussain, Z, Valvano, MA. Outer membrane protein profiles and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis for differentiation of clinical isolates of Proteus mirabilis and Proteus vulgaris . J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2632–2637.Google Scholar
67. Bingen, E, Boissinot, C, Desjardins, P, et al. Arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction provides rapid differentiation of Proteus mirabilis isolates from a pediatric hospital. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1055–1059.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68. Pasloske, BL, Joffe, AM, Sun, Q, et al. Serial isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from a cystic fibrosis patient have identical pilin sequences. Infect Immun 1988;56:665–672.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69. Rabkin, CS, Jarvis, WR, Anderson, RL, et al. Pseudomonas cepacia typing systems: collaborative study to assess their potential in epidemiologic investigations. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11:600–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70. Boukadida, J, de Montalembert, M, Gaillard, J-L, et al. Outbreak of gut colonization by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in immunocompromised children undergoing total digestive decontamination: analysis by pulsed-field electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:2068–2071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71. Ogle, JW, Janda, JM, Woods, DE, Vasil, ML. Characterization and use of a DNA probe as an epidemiological marker for Pseudomonas aeruginosa . J Infect Dis 1987;155:119–126.Google Scholar
72. Anderson, DJ, Kuhns, JS, Vasil, ML, Gerding, DN, Janoff, EN. DNA fingerprinting by pulsed field gel electrophoresis and ribotyping to distinguish Pseudomonas cepacia isolates from a nosocomial outbreak. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:648–649.Google Scholar
73. Dasch, GA, Samms, JR, Weiss, E. Biochemical characteristics of typhus group Rickettsiae with special attention to the Rickettsia prowazekii strains isolated from flying squirrels. Infect Immun 1978;19:676–685.Google Scholar
74. Regnery, RL, Tzianabos, T, Esposito, JJ, McDade, JE. Strain differentiation of epidemic typhus Rickettsiae (Rickettsia prowazekii) by DNA restriction endonuclease analysis. Curr Microbiol 1983;8:355–358.Google Scholar
75. Roux, V, Drancourt, M, Raoult, D. Determination of genome sizes of Rickettsia species within the spotted fever group, using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Bacteriol 1992;174:7455–7457.Google Scholar
76. Manor, E, Ighbarieh, J, Sarov, B, Kassis, I, Regnery, R. Human and tick spotted fever group rickettsia isolates from Israel: a genotypic analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2653–2656.Google Scholar
77. Beltran, P, Musser, JM, Helmuth, R, et al. Toward a population genetic analysis of Salmonella: genetic diversity and relationships among strains of serotypes S. choleraesuis, S. derby, S. dublin, S. enteritidis, S. heidelberg, S. infantis, S. newport, S. typhimurium . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988;85:7753–7757.Google Scholar
78. Altwegg, M, Hickman-Brenner, FW, Farmer, JJ III. Ribosomal RNA gene restriction patterns provide increased sensitivity for typing Salmonella typhi strains. J Infect Dis 1989;160:145–149.Google Scholar
79. Rodrigue, DC, Cameron, DN, Puhr, ND, et al. Comparison of plasmid profiles, phage types, and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella enteritidis isolates in the United States. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:854–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80. Baquar, N, Burnens, A, Stanley, J. Comparative evaluation of molecular typing strains from a national epidemic due to Salmonella brandenburg by rRNA gene and IS200 probes and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1876–1880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81. McGeer, A, Low, DE, Penner, J, et al. Use of molecular typing to study the epidemiology of Serratia marcescens . J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:55–58.Google Scholar
82. Sader, HS, Perl, TM, Hollis, RJ, et al. Nosocomial transmission of Serratia odorifera biogroup 2: case report demonstration by macrorestriction analysis of chromosomal DNA using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:390–393.Google Scholar
83. Kristjánsson, M, Viner, B, Maslow, JN. Polymicrobial and recurrent bacteremia with Shigella in a patient with AIDS. Scand J Infect Dis 1994;26:411–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84. Litwin, CM, Storm, AL, Chipowsky, S, Ryan, KJ. Molecular epidemiology of Shigella infections: plasmid profiles, serotype correlation, and restriction endonuclease analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:104–108.Google Scholar
85. Selander, RK, Caugant, DA, Ochman, H, et al. Methods of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis for bacterial population genetics and systematics. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986;51:873–884.Google Scholar
86. Strockbine, NA, Parsonnet, J, Greene, K, Kiehlbauch, JA, Wachsmuth, IK. Molecular epidemiologic techniques in analysis of epidemic and endemic Shigella dysenteriae type 1 strains. J Infect Dis 1991;163:406–409.Google Scholar
87. Arbeit, RD, Karakawa, WW, Vann, WF, Robbins, JB. Predominance of two newly described capsular polysaccharide types among clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus . Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1984;2:85–91.Google Scholar
88. Tenover, FC, Arbeit, R, Archer, G, et al. Comparison of traditional and molecular methods of typing isolates of Staphylococcus aureus . J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:407–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89. Parisi, JT, Lampson, BC, Hoover, DW, Khan, JA. Comparison of epidemiologic markers for Staphylococcus epidermidis . J Clin Microbiol 1986;24:56–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90. Bialkowska-Hobrazanska, H, Jaskot, D, Hammerberg, O. Evaluation of restriction endonuclease fingerprinting of chromosomal DNA and plasmid profile analysis for characterization of multiresistant coagulase-negative staphylococci in bacteremic neonates. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:269–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91. Goering, RV, Duensing, TD. Rapid field inversion gel electrophoresis in combination with an rRNA gene probe in the epidemiological evaluation of staphylococci. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:426–429.Google Scholar
92. Huebner, J, Pier, GB, Maslow, JN, et al. Endemic nosocomial transmission of Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteremia strains in a neonatal ICU over a 10-year period. J Infect Dis 1994;169:526–531.Google Scholar
93. Denning, DW, Baker, CJ, Troup, NJ, Tompkins, LS. Restriction endonuclease analysis of human and bovine group B streptococci for epidemiologic study. J Clin Microbiol 1989;27:1352–1356.Google Scholar
94. Skjold, SA, Wannamaker, LW. Method for phage typing group A type 49 streptococci. J Clin Microbiol 1976;4:232–238.Google Scholar
95. Cleary, PP, Kaplan, EL, Livdahl, C, Skjold, S. DNA fingerprints of Streptococcus pyogenes are M type specific. J Infect Dis 1988;158:1317–1323.Google Scholar
96. Kell, CM, Jordens, JZ, Daniels, M, et al. Molecular epidemiology of penicillin-resistant pneumococci isolated in Nairobi, Kenya. Infect Immun 1993;61:4382–4391.Google Scholar
97. Roussel, Y, Pebay, M, Guedon, G, Simonet, J-M, Decaris, B. Physical and genetic map of Streptococcus thermophilus A054. J Bacteriol 1994;176:7413–7422.Google Scholar
98. Burnie, JP, Matthews, RC, Clark, I, Milne, LJR. Immunoblot fingerprinting Aspergillus fumigatus . J Immunol Methods 1989;118:179–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99. Varga, J, Croft, JH. Assignment of RFLP, RAPD and isoenzyme markers to Aspergillus nidulans chromosomes, using chromosome-substituted segregants of a hybrid of A. nidulans and A. quadrilineatus . Curr Genet 1994;25:311–317.Google Scholar
100. Varga, J, Kevei, F, Vriesema, A, et al. Mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms in field isolates of the Aspergillus niger aggregate. Can J Microbiol 1994;40:612–621.Google Scholar
101. Lee, W, Burnie, J, Matthews, R. Fingerprinting Candida albicans . J Immunol Methods 1986;93:177–182.Google Scholar
102. Doebbeling, BN, Lehmann, PF, Hollis, RJ, et al. Comparison of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis with isoenzyme profiles as a typing system for Candida tropicalis . Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:377–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103. Magee, PT, Bowdin, L, Staudinger, J. Comparison of molecular typing methods for Candida albicans . J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2674–2679.Google Scholar
104. Schönian, G, Meusel, O, Tietz, H-J, et al. Identification of clinical strains of Candida albicans by DNA fingerprinting with the polymerase chain reaction. Mycoses 1993;36:171–179.Google Scholar
105. Perfect, JR, Magee, BB, Magee, PT. Separation of chromosomes of Cryptococcus neoformans by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. Infect Immun 1989;57:2624–2627.Google Scholar
106. Spitzer, ED, Spitzer, SG, Freundlich, LF, Casadevall, A. Persistence of initial infection in recurrent Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Lancet 1993;341:595–596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107. Keath, EJ, Kobayashi, GS, Medoff, G. Typing of Histoplasma capsulatum by restriction fragment length polymorphisms in a nuclear gene. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2104–2107.Google Scholar
108. Spitzer, ED, Lasker, BA, Travis, SJ, Kobayashi, GS, Medoff, G. Use of mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA polymorphisms to classify clinical and soil isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum . Infect Immun 1989;57:1409–1412.Google Scholar
109. Kersulyte, D, Woods, JP, Keath, EJ, Goldman, WE, Berg, DE. Diversity among clinical isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum detected by polymerase chain reaction with arbitrary primers. J Bacteriol 1992;174:7075–7079.Google Scholar
110. Grillner, L, Strangert, K. A prospective molecular epidemiological study of cytomegalovirus infection in two day care centers in Sweden: no evidence for horizontal transmission within the center. J Infect Dis 1988;157:1080–1083.Google Scholar
111. Sokol, DM, Demmler, GJ, Buffone, GJ. Rapid epidemiologic analysis of cytomegalovirus by using polymerase chain reaction amplification of the L-S junction region. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:839–844.Google Scholar
112. Watanabe, S, Shinkai, M, Hitomi, S, et al. A polymorphic region of the human cytomegalovirus genome encoding putative glycoproteins. Arch Virol 1994;137:117–121.Google Scholar
113. Zuckerman, MA, Hawkins, AE, Briggs, M, et al. Investigation of hepatitis B virus transmission in a health care setting: application of direct sequence analysis. J Infect Dis 1995;172:1080–1083.Google Scholar
114. Allander, T, Gruber, A, Naghavi, M, et al. Frequent patient-to-patient transmission of hepatitis C virus in a haematology ward. Lancet 1995;345:603–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
115. Haugen, TH, Alden, B, Matthey, S, Nicholson, D. Restriction enzyme fragment length polymorphisms of amplified herpes simplex virus type-1 DNA provide epidemiologic information. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;17:129–133.Google Scholar
116. Ou, C-Y, Ciesielski, CA, Myers, G, et al. Molecular epidemiology of HIV transmission in a dental practice. Science 1992;256:1165–1171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
117. Bourhy, H, Kissi, B, Lafon, M, Sacramento, D, Tordo, N. Antigen and molecular characterization of bat rabies virus in Europe. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2419–2426.Google Scholar
118. Das, BK, Gentsch, JR, Cicirello, HG, et al. Characterization of rotavirus strains from newborns in New Delhi, India. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1820–1822.Google Scholar
119. Gaggero, A, Avendaño, L, Fernández, J, Spencer, E. Nosocomial transmission of rotavirus from patients admitted with diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:3294–3297.Google Scholar