¹ Bessie Abramowitz, letter to City Scholarship Committee, [n.d., ca. 1962], Philadelphia Committee on Higher Educational Opportunity (PCHEO) files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Zachery, Philadelphia City Archives (PCA); Cannady, William, letter to City Scholarship Committee, [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5142, folder History of Education Quarterly 60-13-Caul, PCA; Zachery, Leon, “City Scholarship Application,” [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13- Zachery, PCA; Caul, Deitra, “City Scholarship Application,” [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Caul, PCA; John Clough, memo on City Scholarship Program, July 19, 1963, PCHEO files, box A-288, folder 60-13-Correspondence with members, PCA; Clough, letter to Mayor James Tate, 9 August 1963, PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Mayor's office correspondence, PCA.Google Scholar

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³ Bezilla, Michael, Penn State: An Illustrated History (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1985), 263–69, 320.Google Scholar

⁴ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁵ Dougherty, Kevin, “The Politics of Community College Expansion: Beyond the Functionalist and Class-Reproduction Explanations,” American Journal of Education 96, no. 3 (May 1988): 351–93, 364.Google Scholar

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⁷ On the importance of “prime movers” in initiating community colleges, see Fretwell, Elbert, Founding Public Junior Colleges: Local Initiative in Six Communities (New York: Columbia University Teachers College, 1954), 128–34.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Among historical studies of community colleges, see George Baker, III, Dudziak, Judy, and Tyler, Peggy, ed., A Handbook on the Community College in America: Its History, Mission, and Management (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 1–108; Beach, J. M., Gateway to Opportunity?: A History of the Community College in the United States (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2011); Bishop, Charles, The Community's College: A History of Johnson County Community College, 1969–1999 (Pittsburg, KS: Johnson Country Community College/Pittcraft Printing, 2002); Brint, Steven and Karabel, Jerome, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Cohen, Arthur and Brawer, Florence, The American Community College, Fifth Edition (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 1–42; Dougherty, Kevin, The Contradictory College: The Conflicting Origins, Impacts, and Futures of the Community College (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); Frye, John, The Vision of the Public Junior College, 1900–1940: Professional Goals and Popular Aspirations (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); Hutcheson, Philo, “Reconsidering the Community College,” History of Education Quarterly 39, no. 3 (Autumn, 1999): 307–20; Keith, Bruce, “The Context of Educational Opportunity: States and the Legislative Organization of Community College Systems,” American Journal of Education 105, no. 1 (November 1996): 67–101; Meier, Kenneth, “The Community College Mission: History and Theory, 1930–2000” (PhD dissertation, University of Arizona, 2008); Nevarez, Carlos and Wood, J. Luke, Community College Leadership and Administration: Theory Practice, and Change (New York: Peter Lang, 2010), 23–51; Pedersen, “Value Conflict on the Community College Campus”; Tillery, Dale and Deegan, William, “The Evolution of Two-Year Colleges through Four Generations,” in Renewing the American Community College, ed. Deegan, and Tillery, (Sab Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985), 3–33, and Whitson, Kathleen Krebbs, Bill Jason Priest: Community College Pioneer (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2004).Google Scholar

¹¹ Among the unpublished dissertations that offer case studies of community colleges, see Joseph Barwick, “The Impact of Historical Decisions on the Success of Central Piedmont Community College: A Case Study” (PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1991); Sue Blair, “The Emergence and Development of the Community/Junior College in Texas” (PhD dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1991); Burgraff, Donna, “A Social/Cultural Perspective of the Development of Southern West Virginia Community College” (PhD dissertation, West Virginia University, 1995); Byrne, Janet, “An Historical Study of Roane State Community College,” (EdD dissertation, Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University, 1989); Crowl, Vaughn, “Educating Rural Maryland: A Historical and Anecdotal Record of Hagerstown Junior College, 1946–1987” (PhD dissertation, American University, 1987); Crudder, Michael, “A History of Presidential Leadership at Glendale Community College, 1963 to 1996” (PhD dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1997); Gunn, Edward, “Reach for Tomorrow: A History of Rockingham Community College” (PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2000); Hesse, Maria, “The History of Chandler-Gilbert Community College, 1985–2005” (PhD dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2006); Hinsdale, Rosejean, “Maricopa County Community College District: First Decade of Growth of a Multicollege District, 1962–1972” (PhD dissertation, Arizona State University, 1973); Jackson, Elaine, “The Evolving Roles of Angelina Community College as Perceived by its Past and Present Leaders” (PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1992); Kutras, Christopher, “The Organizational Evolution of Shasta Community College, 1948–1992” (PhD dissertation, University of San Francisco, 1995); Manor, Michael, “The Development of North Central Michigan College during the First Quarter Century, 1958–1983” (PhD dissertation, Wayne State University, 1989); Morris, Kevin, “A History of the South Carolina Technical Education System, 1961–1991” (PhD dissertation, Clemson University, 1997); O'Hara, Adina, “From University Centers to Community Colleges: The Evolution of a Distinctive System of Higher Education in Kentucky” (PhD dissertation, University of Kentucky, 2005); Rocklin, Fern, “Serving the Unserved and Underserved: Western Iowa Tech Community College, the First Thirty-Three Years, 1966–1999 (PhD dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1999); Schulman, Diane, “A Community College and Its Contending Communities: Erie Community College the First Twenty-Five Years, 1946–1971” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1975); Smith, Dustin, “A Century of Change: The History of Two-Year Education in the State of Alabama, 1866–1963,” (EdD dissertation, University of Alabama, 2012); Smith, Janet, “The History of Tennessee Community Colleges: 1957–1978” (PhD dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1983); Smolich, Robert, “An Analysis of Influenced Affecting the Origin and Early Development of Three Mid-Western Public Junior Colleges—Joliet, Goshen, and Crane” (PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1967); Spears, Gary, “A History of Northwest Mississippi Community College, 1926–1990” (PhD dissertation, University of Mississippi, 1991); Tordenti, Laura, “A History of Green River Community College from Its Founding through 1980” (PhD dissertation, Seattle University, 1996); Weaver, Benjamin, “Bringing the Colleges to the Communities: An Historical Analysis of the Siting of the State University of New York Community Colleges” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 2008); and Wiedmann, Arietta, “Colorado Community College Movements, 1960s and 1970s: The Experiences of Women Leaders” (PhD dissertation, Colorado State University, 1998).Google Scholar

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¹³ Among critics who argue that community colleges reproduce social and economic inequalities, see Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream; Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America (New York: Basic, 1976); Clark, Burton, The Open Door College: A Case Study (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960); Karabel, Jerome, “Community Colleges and Social Stratification,” Harvard Educational Review 42 (Winter 1972): 521–62; Karabel, Jerome, “Protecting the Portals: Class and the Community College,” Social Policy 5, no. 1 (May-June 1974): 12–18; Nasaw, David, Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); Pincus, Fred, “Tracking in Community Colleges,” The Insurgent Sociologist 4 (Spring 1974): 17–36; Pincus, “The False Promises of Community Colleges: Class Conflict and Vocational Education,” Harvard Educational Review 50 (August 1980): 332–61.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ In the last half of their important book on community colleges, Steven Brint and Jerome Karabel focus on an extended case study of the community college movement in Massachusetts. Like Pennsylvania, Massachusetts has a history or private colleges and universities. Unlike Pennsylvania, the legislation to establish a system of community colleges in Massachusetts was introduced by the Governor and passed on the first attempt. As such, this history of the origins of the community colleges in Massachusetts is covered in just two pages. Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 144–45.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Pedersen, “Value Conflict on the Community College Campus,” 20. See also, Pedersen, “The Origins and Development of the Early Public Junior College: 1900–1940” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2000).Google Scholar

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¹⁸ Botts, Talma, “A History of Temple College: 1965–1998” (PhD dissertation, Baylor University, 2001); Delaney, George, “The Development of the Washington Community College Act of 1967” (PhD dissertation, University of Washington, 1990); Katsinas, Stephen, “George Wallace and the Founding of Alabama's Public Two-Year Colleges,” Journal of Higher Education 65, no. 4 (Jul-Aug. 1994): 447–72; Rivers, Ishwanzya, “Rising from the Bricks: The Historical Development of East St. Louis State Community College, 1969–2004” (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2011); and Vandenberg-Daves, Jodi, “‘A Look at the Total Knowledge of the World': The University of Minnesota, the Land-Grant Tradition, and the Politics of Public Higher Education, 1950–1990,” History of Education 32, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 57–79.Google Scholar

¹⁹ On civil rights in Philadelphia, see Countryman, Matthew J., Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); Wolfinger, James, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); and Lisa Levenstein, A Movement without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).Google Scholar

²⁰ Bender, Louis and Shoemaker, Elwood, “The Pennsylvania Community Colleges: Miracles Do Happen,” Junior College Journal 42, no. 1 (August–September 1971): 10–13.Google Scholar

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²³ Ibid, 84. On the increasing enrollment in two- and four-year institutions in the postwar era, see Kim, Dongbin and Rury, John, “The Changing Profile of College Access: The Truman Commission and Enrollment Patterns in the Postwar Era,” History of Education Quarterly 47, no. 3 (August 2007): 302–27.Google Scholar

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²⁵ The change in terminology from “branch campuses” to “Commonwealth Campuses” came in 1959 with a reorganization that sought to bring the campuses into closer contact with main campus, by placing the campuses under a central coordinator who reported to the University president. Historian Michael Bezilla notes, “The term ‘Commonwealth Campus’ referred only to those branches whose physical plants met certain criteria, including ownership of the property by the University. Those that rented or leased facilities were still called ‘centers.”’ Bezilla, Penn State, 323–24.Google Scholar

²⁶ The fourteen campuses in 1960 were Allentown, Altoona, Behrend, Berks, DuBois, Hazelton, McKeesport, New Kensington, Mont Alto, Ogontz, Pottsville, Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, and York. Five additional campuses opened later: Beaver, Fayette, and Shenango in 1965; Harrisburg (Capital Campus) in 1966; and Brandywine (formerly Delaware County) in 1967. Bezilla, Penn State, 323–37. For additional information on the history of the Penn State branch campuses, see the websites for the respective campuses and Penn State, “Histories of Some Perm State Campuses Around the Commonwealth,” http://www.psu.edu/ur/topics/history.html.Google Scholar

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²⁹ Bezilla, Perm State, 325.Google Scholar

³⁰ In addition to the Abington campus, in 1967, the Brandywine campus (formerly named Delaware County) opened in Media, Pennsylvania, eighteen miles west of Center City Philadelphia. Bezilla, Perm State, 333.Google Scholar

³¹ Cohen and Brawer, The American Community College, 16. Additionally, a 2003–2004 study found that the median distance for two-year college students from their home to the campus was ten miles. Horn, Laura, Nevill, Stephanie, and Griffith, James, Profiles of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education Institutions, 2003–04: With a Special Analysis of Community College Students (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2006), 61.Google Scholar

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³⁴ On Maurice Fagan and the Fellowship Commission's antidiscrimination work in the Philadelphia schools, see Delmont, Matthew, The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock ‘n’ Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 68–100.Google Scholar

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³⁸ Bonnell, Community College of Philadelphia, 30; Obermayer, letter to Joseph Pollock, 16 October 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, PJAC; Pollack, letter to Obermayer, 17 October 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, PJAC.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ Fagan, Maurice, letter to Will Maslow, 13 October 1955, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC; “Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Committee on Fair Education Opportunities: Minutes of Meeting of Educators to Plan Future Conference,” 12 April 1955, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 005, PJAC; “Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Planning Committee for Conference of College Representatives,” 12 April 1955, JCRC collection, box 008, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar

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⁴³ During its first three years, the higher educational group was called the Committee on Higher Educational Opportunities in Philadelphia. In 1958, when the group was established as a permanent organization appointed by the mayor, the name was changed to the Philadelphia Commission on Higher Education (PCOHE). For simplicity, I refer to the group by the later name (PCOHE), throughout this section.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ “Memorandum for David Ullman,” 19 November 1956, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Fagan, letter to Wilfred Lorry and David Ullman, 27 March 1957, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 007, PJAC.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Fagan, “PCHEO Public Meetings, Second Session Transcript,” 25 April 1957, JCRC collection, MSS 115, Sec 1, box 003, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ Fagan, letter to Lewis Stevens, 28 January 1958, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ Ibid., 269.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ “Fellowship Commission, Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 27 October 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Burton Clark describes how San Jose's mayor and chamber of commerce spoke of San Jose State College as “‘our state college,”’ and notes that the “existence of the state college in San Jose, not more than three miles from the new junior college, meant both a preemption of a higher call upon community pride.” Clark, The Open Door College, 37–38.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA On the ways in which images of America, specifically representations of civil rights and racial discrimination, emerged as a foreign policy issue in the postwar era, see Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).Google Scholar

⁶¹ John Clough, Jr., letter to Members of Commission on Higher Education, 11 January 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁶² Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September 1961.Google Scholar

⁶³ On television talk shows in the late 1950s and early 1960s, see Bernard Timberg, Television Talk: A History of the TV Talk Show (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 1–55. On the use of television to model norms of citizenship, see Anna McCarthy, The Citizen Machine (New York: The New Press, 2010). On the Fellowship Commission's earlier civil rights television show, They Shall Be Heard, see Delmont, The Nicest Kids in Town, 50–67.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ In reading through the local case studies on community colleges listed in footnote nine, I have not found evidence of comparable public relations campaigns on behalf of a community college.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Delaney, “The Development of the Washington Community College Act of 1967,” 230.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ibid., 288.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Vandenberg-Daves, “‘A Look at the Total Knowledge of the World,”’ 66.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 356.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Fagan, letter to David Ullman, Thomas McBride and William Gray, 20 April 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 15, TUUA. See also, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 29 April 1960, FC collection, Acc 626 box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Fellowship Commission, “Statement on Higher Education Practices and Opportunities Submitted to the Governor's Commission on Education Task Force on Higher Education,” 2 June 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁷² “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 26 January 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 37, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁷⁴ On the turn to community organizing and mass protest among many black civil rights advocates in Philadelphia, see Countryman, Matthew, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 48–220.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Countryman, Up South, 151.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Sugrue, Thomas, Sweet Land Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 294.Google Scholar

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⁷⁹ “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 28 September 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 37, TUUA; “Fellowship Commission Board of Commissioners Meeting Minutes,” 10 October 1961, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 010, PJAC; Fagan, letter to Charles Sustein, 1 February 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 5, TUUA; Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” June 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” February 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 19, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁸³ Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 376.Google Scholar

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⁸⁵ Conant, Slums and Suburbs, 100.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Fagan, letter to William Rafsky, 20 November 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 11, TUUA; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Fact and Action Memorandum,” December 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 11, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Dilworth, Richardson, letter to Millard Gladfelter, 25 September 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 11, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Wilcox, William, “Testimony of Greater Philadelphia Movement at Public Hearing on House Bill 1066,” 23 May 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 38, folder 1, TUUA; Batten, Harry, letter to Governor Scranton, 28 March 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 38, folder 1, TUUA. On the concerns of the business community with the community college, see Clough, John, letter to Charles Simpson, 18 March 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 19, TUUA; Gleazer, Edmund, letter to Keeton Arvett, 18 March 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 19, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁹¹ Countryman, Up South, 113. On Leon Sullivan and challenges to employment discrimination, see Countryman, Up South, 83–179; Thomas Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” The Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 145–73; Franklin, V.P., “‘The Lion of Zion': Leon H. Sullivan and the Pursuit of Social and Economic Justice,” Journal of African American History 96 (Winter 2011): 39–43; McKee, Guian, The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); and Leon Sullivan, Build Brother, Build (Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969).Google Scholar

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⁹⁶ “James H.J. Tate News Release,” March 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA; Simpson, Charles, letter to James Tate, 30 March 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA; Tate, letter to Simpson, 2 April 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA.Google Scholar

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⁹⁸ “Fellowship Commission Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education,” 25 September 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; “Fellowship Commission Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education,” 18 December 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September-October 1965, FC collection, Acc 626, box 54, folder 22, TUUA; Bonnell, Allen, Community College of Philadelphia: A Chronicle of the Years 1964–1984, 1984, Community College (CC) collection, Community College of Philadelphia Archives (CCPA).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ “Snellenburg Bldg. Site for College,” Philadelphia Tribune, 6 February 1965.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Countryman, Up South, 170.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Bricklin, Mark, “'Moore's Threats Sank Crippins’ Sam Evans Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, 6 April 1965. See also, Wilder, John Brantley and McCann, Ray, “Rights Groups Pledge Togetherness at NAACP Member Rally Sunday,” 27 April 1965.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ McCann, Ray, “Mcintosh Only Dissenter in 16–1 Vote Tab,” Philadelphia Tribune, 8 May 1965.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ “Negro Waste of Education Opportunity Hit,” Philadelphia Tribune, 30 October 1965.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Wilder, “Phila. Community College Must Part Girard Estate $750,000 Yearly,” Philadelphia Tribune, 27 April 1968. See also, Wilder “Does Community College Aid Needy?,” Philadelphia Tribune, 23 April 1968.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ The Community College of Philadelphia began holding classes in the former Philadelphia Mint building in 1973, but continued to lease the Snellenberg space until renovations to the Philadelphia Mint building were completed in 1983. “Community College of Philadelphia, Historical Highlights” http://www.ccp.edu/site/about/historical.php.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 83–84.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Cohen, Arthur, “Governmental Policies Affecting Community Colleges: A Historical Perspective,” in Community Colleges: Policy in the Future Context, ed. Townsend, Barbara and Twombly, Susan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), 6. On the development of state plans for community colleges, see Keith, “The Context of Educational Opportunity,” Terrence Tollefson, “The Evolution of State Systems of Community Colleges in the United States,” in A Handbook on the Community College in America ed. Baker III, Dudziak, and Tyler, 74–81.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁰ Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 375; Charles Monroe, Profile of the Community College (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972), 17; Nevarez and Wood, Community College Leadership and Administration, 40.Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Bezilla, Penn State, 323–37.Google Scholar

¹¹² Ibid., 337.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Bender and Shoemaker, “Miracles Do Happen,” 13.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Nevarez and Wood, Community College Leadership and Administration, 40–42.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Fellowship Commission, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 24 June 1966, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 41, TUUA; Fellowship Commission, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 28 October 1966, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 41, TUUA;Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Community College of Philadelphia, “Progress and Self-Evaluation Report Prepared for The Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, Middle States Association of College and Secondary Schools, 1 November 1967, CC collection, Acc 378 154 C734s1, CCPA.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Educational Equality League, “Testimony Presented to the Council of Higher Education of the State Board of Education of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” 29 January 1965, FL collection, Acc 469, box 5, folder 10, TUUA.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ “Keep Cost Down on Community College,” Philadelphia Tribune, 11 July 1964.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Community College of Philadelphia, “Civitas, A Yearbook.”Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Fellowship Commission, “Joint Meeting of the Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 8 July 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; Community College of Philadelphia, “Civitas, A Yearbook,” June 1967 CC collection, Acc A378.748 C734ci, CCPA.Google Scholar

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¹²² Ibid.Google Scholar

¹²³ On the history of residential and education segregation in Philadelphia, see Michael Clapper, “The Constructed World of Postwar Philadelphia Area Schools: Site Selection, Architecture, and the Landscape of Inequality” (PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2008); Countryman, Up South, 223–57; Delmont, Matthew, The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock ‘n’ Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia (Oakland: University of California Press, 2012), 68–125; and Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches, 121–56. On the present-day legacy of these histories, see Logan, John, “Whose Schools Are Failing?,” US2010: Discover America in a New Century (July 2011); and Logan, “Separate and Unequal: The Neighborhood Gap for Blacks, Hispanics and Asians in Metropolitan America,” US2010: Discover America in a New Century (July 2011).Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Among recent works on the challenge facing public institutions of higher education, see Newfield, Christopher, Unmaking the Public University: The Forty-year Assault on the Middle Class (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Douglass, John, The Conditions for Admission: Access, Equity, and the Social Contract of Public Universities (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Gelber, Scott, The University and the People: Envisioning American Higher Education in an Era of Populist Protest (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011); Lyall, Katherine and Sell, Kathleen, The True Genius of America at Risk: Are We Losing Our Public Universities to De Facto Privatization? (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); John, Edward St. and Parsons, Michael, ed., Public Funding of Higher Education: Changing Contexts and New Rationales (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).Google Scholar