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⁵ Tanenhous, David, Juvenile Justice in the Making (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), xxvii.Google Scholar

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¹² Polier, Justine, Juvenile Justice in Double Jeopardy (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986), 35.Google Scholar

¹³ Other judges of the New York Children's Court who deserve historical investigation include Poller's colleagues Judge Herbert Delaney and Judge Jane Bolin, both among the nation's first black justices.Google Scholar

¹⁴ For an excellent overview of such cases see Mezey, Susan Gluck, Children in Court: Public Policymaking and the Federal Court System (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1996).Google Scholar

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¹⁷ For a pithy history of school governance and decentralization see David Tyack's “School Governance in the United States: Historical Puzzles and Anomalies,” in Decentralization and School Improvement, eds. Hannaway, Jane and Carnoy, Martin (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1993), 1–32. For a detailed account of events that led up to the movement for community control in New York City see Ravitch, Diane, The Great School Wars: A History of the New York City Public Schools (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974).Google Scholar

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²⁰ Polier's father was Rabbi Stephen Wise, founder of the US Free Synagogue. Her mother was Louise Wise, founder of the New York City's first non-sectarian adoption agency, Louise Wise Services.Google Scholar

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²⁷ Notes for Shad Polier's obituary can be found in Field Foundation Papers, Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin, Box 4X101.Google Scholar

²⁸ See Robyn Muncy's introduction to her Creating a Female Dominion of American Reform, 1890–1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).Google Scholar

²⁹ For an introduction to Marion Kenworthy's work see Lee, Porter and Kenworthy, Marion, Mental Hygiene and Social Work (New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1931).Google Scholar

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³⁸ Polier, Justine, Everybody's Children, Nobody's Child: A Judge Looks at Underprivileged Children (New York: Scribner's Sons Publishers, 1941), 172.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ See, for example, the handwritten notes in JWP papers Box 24, Folder 99.Google Scholar

⁴² See Lavine, Harold, “Social Workers Warned La Guardia When he Slashed Educational and Welfare Funds.” PM Daily III, no. 82 (9 September 1942): 3.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ “Delinquent Boys Held in Tombs,” 5 April 1944. Source unknown; clipping is available in JWP, Box 3, Folder 29.Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ Viteritti, Joseph, “Tombs,” in The Encyclopedia of New York City, ed. Jackson, Kenneth T. (New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press, 1991), 1190.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Polier, Justine, In Re Prieto, Domestic Relations Court, City of New York, Children's Court Division, Bronx County. 49 N.Y.S.2d 800; June 29, 1944. All subsequent references to the Prieto case are to this transcript.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ Eliot, Martha, “Introduction” to Justine Poller's “Back to What Woodshed?” Public Affairs Committee Pamphlet No. 232, 1956, 6.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Eliot, , “Introduction,” 6. For a discussion of responses to the increase in juvenile crime rates in other cities see Steven Mintz's Huck's Raft: The History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 291–93.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Polier had multiple connections to the NAACP's LDEF. She was, for example, a founding board member of the Field Foundation, a loyal hinder of the organization.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Polier, Justine, In the Matter of Shelley Myers, Domestic Relations Court of the City of New York, Children's Court Division. 14 Misc. 2d 325; 180 N.Y.S. 2d 852. All subsequent references to the Myers case are to this transcript.Google Scholar

⁶¹ “Father Is Cleared in School Boycott,” The New York Times, 20 February 1953, 20.Google Scholar

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⁶³ For a discussion of pre-civil rights era parental activism in Harlem see, for example, “Link Old Schools to Harlem Unrest,” The New York Times, 11 April 1935, 16.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ One family had enrolled their child in catholic school and so was in compliance with the compulsory education law.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ The New York Times, 13 December 1958. Clipping available in JWP, Box 21, Folder 248a.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Polier, Justine, In the Matter of Charlene Skipwith and Another Domestic Relations Court of the City of New York, Children's Court Division. 14 Misc. 2d 325; 180 N.Y.S.2d 852. All subsequent references to the Skipwith case are to this transcript.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ New York Teacher News, January 24, 1959, 1.Google Scholar

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⁷⁰ For a discussion of the implications of Gault see Watkins, John, The Juvenile Century: A Sociolegal Commentary on the American Juvenile Courts (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1998).Google Scholar

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⁷⁴ As of 2004, in all states except Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Mexico, and New York a juvenile judge could opt to waive jurisdiction of a case and send it to the criminal courts. See Guarino-Ghezzi, Susan and Loughran, Edward J., Balancing Juvenile Justice (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2004), 107–109.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Streib, Victor L., Death Penalty for Juveniles (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987), 9.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Polier, , Juvenile Justice in Double Jeopardy, 12Google Scholar

⁷⁷ See Podair's The Strike that Changed New York and Perlstein's Justice, Justice for detailed accounts the way parents rejected expert-controlled education.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ See the introduction to Poller's, Juvenile Justice in Double Jeopardy. Google Scholar

⁷⁹ See, for example, Barry Feld's Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court (NY: Oxford University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Polier, , Juvenile Justice in Double Jeopardy, xii.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Ibid., xiv.Google Scholar

⁸² Ibid.,xiv.Google Scholar

⁸³ Data are drawn from the report “Young Adults in Jail or Prison,” Child Trends available online at www.childtrendsdatabank.org.Google Scholar