¹ Spring, Joel, The American School, 1642-1985: Varieties of Historical Interpretation of the Foundations and Development of American Education (New York, 1984), 101–107; Feldberg, Michel, “The Philadelphia native American Riots of 1844,” Binder, Frederick M. and Reimers, David M. (eds.) The Way We Lived: Essays and Documents in American Social History (Lexington, MA, 1988), 225-238; Ravitch, Diane, The Great School Wars: New York City, 1805-1913 (New York, 1974), 33-76. Google Scholar

² James Hennesey, S.J., American Catholics: A History of the Roman Catholic Community in the United States (New York, 1981), 173. The Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1951 (Washington D.C., 1961), 7-8. McFaul's comments appeared in the Milwaukee Catholic Citizen, June 23, 1900, Bernard Moses Collection, C-B 994, box 2, clipping File, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, California.Google Scholar

³ Theodore Roosevelt to Elihu Root, November 7, 1901, Roosevelt to John Crane, July 31, 1902; Roosevelt to James Francis Tracey, December 2, 1902; Roosevelt to John Ireland, July 31, 1903 in Morison, Elting E., ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, 1951) v. 3, 189–190, 306-08, 393-94, 536-37.Google Scholar

⁴ Roosevelt, to Root, , May 9, 1902, in Morison, , Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, v. 3, 260.Google Scholar

⁵ Robert Fogerty, G., Stagnaro, Frank J., and McInnis, Michael A. Jr., Under the Lamppost: A History of the Young Men's Institute (Oakland, 1948), 5–13. Walsh, James P., Ethnic Militancy: An Irish Catholic Prototype (San Francisco, 1972), 18-20. Issel, William and Cherny, Robert W., San Francisco, 1862-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986), 143-146. Brusher, Joseph S., “Peter C. Yorke and the A.P.A. in San Francisco,” Catholic Historical Review 37 (July 1951): 129-150. San Francisco Monitor, May 21, 1898, 151. Hartmann, Edward George, The Movement to Americanize the Immigrant, (New York, 1948), 19-20. Smith had joined the California National Guard as private in 1881, and elected colonel of the First in 1888. V. Edmund McDevitt, FSC, The First California's Chaplain: The Story of the Heroic Chaplain of the First California Volunteers During the Spanish-American War (Fresno, 1956), 39-46. Google Scholar

⁶ Pringle, Henry F., The Life and Times of William Howard Taft (New York, 1939), v.1, 206. Reuter, Frank T., Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies (Austin, 1967), 126. Idem., “American Catholics and the Establishment of the Philippine Public School System,” Catholic Historical Review 49 (October 1963): 365-381. Google Scholar

⁷ Major John Biddle Porter, of the Judge Advocate Department, filled out the delegation. O'Connell, Marvin R., John Ireland and the American Catholic Church (St. Paul, 1988), 17, 418, 395. Pringle, , Life and Times of William Howard Taft, pp. 226-231. Google Scholar

⁸ Roosevelt to Taft, October 21, 1902, and Roosevelt to Smith, July 11, 1904, in Morrison, , The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, v. 3, 358, v. 4, 854.Google Scholar

⁹ Ibid., Roosevelt to Elihu Root, May 9, 1902, and Roosevelt to Taft, July 31, 1902, 260, 303. The vacancy came when another Californian, Bernard Moses, returned to the University of California as professor of history and political science. Roosevelt felt Moses lacked sympathy to Catholic sensibilities.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Clymer, Kenton J., Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana, 1986), 1–8.Google Scholar

¹¹ Stanley, Peter W., A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921 (Cambridge, 1974), 3–48. Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Guerrero, Milagros C., History of the Filipino People (Quezon City, Philippines, 1977), 117-138. Google Scholar

¹² Schumacher, John N. SJ, Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850-1903 (Quezon City, Philippines, 1981), 192–222. Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 52-55. Google Scholar

¹³ Schumacher, , Revolutionary Clergy, 80–81. The revolutionary leader, Apolinario Mabini, espoused civil marriages and other forms of separation of church and state in 1898. Clymer, , Protestant Missionaries, 116-117. Google Scholar

¹⁴ Clymer, , Protestant Missionaries, 11-31. Smith, James Francis, “Catholic Missionaries in the Philippines,” San Francisco: Catholic Truth Society, 1901, pamphlet.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 81-113. Cullamar, Evelyn Tan, Babaylanism in Negros: 1896-1907 (Quezon City, Philippines, 1986), 42–43.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Schumacher, , Revolutionary Clergy, 97. Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 31. David Prescott Barrows Collection, C-B 1005, box 1, “School Administration/City Schools of Manila, Philippine Islands, October 26, 1900 to January 1901,” Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, CA. Borrows noted the number and condition of schools during the year he served as superintendent in Manila. Google Scholar

¹⁷ May, Glenn A., Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact on American Colonial Policy (Westport, 1980), 78.Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 31.Google Scholar

²⁰ McDavitt, , The First California's Chaplain, 39–46, 100-105. New York The Evangelist, September 20, 1900, 9, Moses Collection, box 2, “Clippings-Philippines.” The paper referred to Anderson as a minister in the Congregational Church who had taught school in Oregon prior to joining the Oregon Second in 1989. He did not enter the army as a chaplain. The paper claimed that McKinnon had not disturbed the “religious exercises” in the schools and the present director had done little in way of changing customs either. It noted that even though definite orders had been given against religious observations in the schools, they had not been enforced, and it concluded that it was wise not to go against the custom, adding that the teachers would determine the custom. Anderson was replaced in March 1900 by Captain Albert Todd and most probably the Catholic press's claim that Anderson was a minister had something to do the change in personnel. Reuter, , “American Catholics and the Establishment of the Philippine Public School System,” 367-68. Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid., 31-3, 81-6. Gates, John M., Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898-1902 (Westport, 1973), 128–155. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines, 78-79.Google Scholar

²² Thomas O'Gorman to John Ireland, July 4, 1902, Archbishop John Ireland Collection. Minnesota Historical Society, Saint Paul, MN, microfilm reel 8.Google Scholar

²³ Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 63. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines, 77-96, 225, Endnote 8. Act 74 created an administrative corps headed by a general superintendent who organized school districts, normal, secondary, and primary schools, agricultural and navigational colleges and eventually a university. The general superintendent had considerable freedom to run the system as he saw fit. The Bureau of Public Instruction changed its name to the Bureau of Education in 1902 and in 1905 the title of general superintendent changed to director of education. The U.S. Army had called it the Department of Public Instruction. For clarity, I have followed the example of Professor May and used the original titles.Google Scholar

²⁴ Roosevelt, to Taft, , February 14, 1903, in Morison, , Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, v.3, 425–426.Google Scholar

²⁵ Hennesey, SJ, American Catholics, 219, 239. Reuter, , Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies, 129. Archbishop Placide Chapelle of New Orleans became Archishop in 1899, Tschan, Francis J., “Chapelle. Placide L.,” Dictionary of American Biography, v.4, 11-12. Schumacher Revolutionary Clergy, 251-52, Endnote 117. Smith to Lieutenant H. A. Hanigan, November 3, 1906, James Francis Smith Collection, MS 36.1 48/61, Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma, WA. Smith's views: “I agree with you that a great many of those questions could be settled if the people could have proper religious influences. It is impossible to get American priests and it will take some years to create a native priesthood. In the meantime we must have patience and get along as best we may with what is available.” Roosevelt may have wanted Hendrick of Rochester to succeed Chapelle. Roosevelt had known and respected Hendrick when he was governor of New York, but the Pope selected Harty. Schumacher, , Revolutionary Clergy, 251-2, Endnote 117; 278, Endnote 11. The other two American bishops, Rooker from Albany and had served with the apostolic delegation in Washington D.C., and before that, was vice rector of the American College in Rome. Dougherty came from Philadelphia and returned to that city as archbishop. Google Scholar

²⁶ Milwaukee Catholic Citizen, May 3, 1902, and the New York Paulist monthly, The Catholic World , “The School Question in the Philippines,” The Catholic World, 75 (June, 1902): 429–432, two publications with different readerships, labeled most if not all the major participants in the Bureau of Public Instruction ministers or former ministers. The Catholic World, when it could not claim that Smith's predecessor on the Commission, Professor Bernard Moses had affiliations as a Protestant minister, the journal declared he was a “Hebrew.” This forced his wife to explain that Moses was a fairly common Welsh name. Moses Collection, box 2, “Clipping File.” San Francisco Monitor, November 12, 1899 reacted against McKinnon's demotion; Boston Pilot, August 16, 1902, decried the lack of Catholic teachers. Reuter, , “American Catholics and the “Establishment of the Philippine Public School System,” 365-381. The Anti-Imperial press such as the Springfield Republican also looked upon the new school system with less than favorable eyes. Moses Collection, box 2, “Clipping File.” Google Scholar

²⁷ Archbishop O'Doherty, Michael J., “Religious Situation in the Philippines,” American Ecclesiastical Review (v.74, 1924, 129–138). O'Doherty, an Irishman, replaced Jeremiah J. Harty as Archbishop of Manila in 1916.Google Scholar

²⁸ Reuter, , Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies, 127–130. Taft to Archbishop Ireland, October 17, 1902, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 8; Smith to Ireland, May 7, 1903, Clarence R. Edwards to Ireland, June 8, 1903, George A. O'Reilly to Ireland, July 27, 1903, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 9. Taft to Ehilu Root, November 22, 1902, William Howard Taft Papers, series 3, microfilm reel 37.Google Scholar

²⁹ Hennesey, SJ, American Catholics, 219. Reuter, , Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies, 129. Google Scholar

³⁰ May, Social Engineering in the Philippines, 100, 226, Endnote 13. May reviewed twelve textbooks and in only two is the Church mentioned, and only in passing. He found it in Newsom and Newsom, Primer and First Reader. I have found it in Fee, Mary H., Purcell, Margaret A., Fillmore, Parker H., and Ritchie, John W., The First Year Book (New York and Manila: World Book and Company, 1907), 71. However, just as in May's study, the Church is included but there is no discussion of religion. In this book there is an illustration of people walking toward the church. The text reads, “Today is Sunday. The boys and girls are going to church. They will not go to church tomorrow. Tomorrow will be Monday. They will go to school tomorrow….” Google Scholar

³¹ Clifford, Mary Dorita, BVD, “Harty, Jeremiah J.,” New Catholic Encyclopedia, V. 6,938–39. [Anon.], Biographical Sketch of Rev. Jeremiah J. Harty (St. Louis, n.d., Archives of the Archdiocese of St. Louis) 6.Google Scholar

³² Spring, , The American School, 1642-1985, 101–107.Google Scholar

³³ San Francisco Monitor, May 16, 1899, 51.Google Scholar

³⁴ Jernegan, Prescott F., A Short History of the Philippines: For Use in Elementary Schools (Manila, Philippines, 1904). Jernegan dedicated this edition to his former students in Vigan, Batac, and Manila. Who Was Who Among North American Authors, 1921-1931 (Detroit, 1976), v. 1, 779. Prescott Ford Jernegan was born in December 1866 in Edgartown, MA, educated at Phillips Academy, Brown University, and Newton Theological Institute. He served as pastor of the First Baptist Church in Middletown, CT and DeLand, FL from 1892-1896. From 1901 to 1910 he taught in the Philippines.Google Scholar

³⁵ Bishop Thomas Hendrick to Archbishop James Harty, March 1, 1905, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 14. Idem., to Archibshop John Ireland, January 19, 1906, Ireland Collection microfilm reel 10.Google Scholar

³⁶ Archbishop Jeremiah J. Harty to James F. Smith, April 1905, and Smith to Prescott F. Jernegan, July 15, 1905, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 14. Jernegan, Prescott F., A Short History of the Philippine (New York, 1905), 170.Google Scholar

³⁷ James, F. Smith to Prescott Jernegan, July 15, 1905, and Archbishop Jeremiah J. Harty to James F. Smith, April 26, 1905, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 14.Google Scholar

³⁸ Reihold, Leonard E. to Barrows, David P., April 16, 1906, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” May, Social Engineering in the Philippines, 79–96. Barrows's predecessors were Frederick W. Atkinson and Elmer Bryan. Like Barrows, they held doctorates.Google Scholar

³⁹ Clymer, Kenton, “Humanitarian Imperialism: David Prescott Barrows and the White Man's Burden in the Philippines,” Pacific Historical Review, 45 (November 1976):495–517. Barrows, a Chicago native, born in 1873, had an A.B. from Pomona College and a M.A. from the University of California. His work on the Cahuilla (sometimes written as Coahuila) Indians of California's southern desert was, for its time, considered one of the most thorough and sensitive studies done on Native Americans. After completing his doctorate he taught a short time at the Normal School at San Diego. He had come to the Philippines on the suggestion of Bernard Moses and Benjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the University of California. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes concerned itself primarily with the Igorotes and Negritos who had for over 300 years escaped missionary attempts to convert them. As soon as the Bureau opened Barrows applied to be the director. For a different view of Barrows's accepting the head of the Bureau of Non-Christianized Tribes, see George A. O'Reilly to Archbishop John Ireland, September 15, 1903, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 9. O'Reilly, embittered over losing the promotion to general superintendent in 1903 to Barrows, wrote that Barrows took the directorship of the Non-Christian Tribes because it paid more than the Manila superin-tendentship.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 54–64. The First or Schurman Philippine Commission (Jacob Gould Schurman, president of Cornell University) met in the spring of 1899. The Second or Taft Philippine Commission arrived in Manila in June of 1900. Like the first, it had five members but within a short time three Filipinos were added to it. Worcester, Dean C., The Philippine Islands and Their People (New York, 1898). James F. Smith to President Theodore Roosevelt, June 13, 1906, Smith Collection, box 1, folder 8. Google Scholar

⁴¹ Clymer in Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement 5, 42-44, described Barrows's father as a businessman. Barrows was a religious man. He delivered lay sermons at the Presbyterian Church in Manila and served as president of the Manila YMCA during his time as General Superintendent. Serving as president of the YMCA, in the eyes of many Catholics, was tantamount to being a preacher. Idem., “Humanitarian Imperialism: David Prescott Barrows and the White Man's Burden in the Philippines,” 500. Harty, Jeremiah J., Archbishop of Manila, to Father Doyle, May 1, 1906, Smith Collection, box 1, folder 8.Google Scholar

⁴² Reihold, Leonard E., to Barrows, David P., April 16, 17, 19, 1906, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” Reihold dictated his letter over several days. On April 16 he wrote that Wynne's letter had arrived.Google Scholar

⁴³ Barrows, , History of the Philippines (New York, 1905) 3.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Most Rev. J.J. Harty, Archbishop of Manila, “Superintendent Barrows on Bishop Salzar,” April 14, 1906, 4, 18; Ibid., “Barrows'[sic] ‘History of the Philippines’” The Monitor, June 16, 1906, 8, microfilm, reel 11.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Barrows, , History of the Philippines (1905), 110.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ The Monitor, April 14, 1906, 18, microfilm, reel 11. Harty quoted Edward Gaylord Bourne's “Introduction,” in The Philippine Islands, 1493-1802 by Blair, Emma Helen and Robinson, James A. (Cleveland, 1903-1909), 55 vols. Barrows had written in both his 1905 and 1907 Prefaces that the Blair and Robinson work was not available for his use.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Blair, and Robinson, , eds., The Philippine Islands 1493-1898. Several scholars provided translations of documents.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Barrows, , History of the Philippines (New York, 1905), 123.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ The Monitor, April 14, 1905, 4, microfilm, reel 11.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Schumacher, , Revolutionary Clergy, 230–266. Clymer, , Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 93-113, 153-173. Aglipay declared himself vicar general of the Philippine Independent Church. The most contentious properties confiscated by the United States military were the San Jose College and the San Juan de Dios Hospital and estates. Google Scholar

⁵¹ Leonard, E. Reihold to David P. Barrows, April 16, 17, 19, 1906, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” Google Scholar

⁵² Harty, to Ide, Henry C., February 27, 1906, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 13. Stanley, , A Nation in the Making, 127. Barrows, a devout Presbyterian had been president of the Manila YMCA and had delivered a lay sermon in the Presbyterian church. Clymer, , “Humanitarian Imperialism, 495-517. Reuter, , “Establishment of Philippine Public School System,” 378. Google Scholar

⁵³ Ide, to Harty, , March 2, 1906, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 10.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Smith, to Ide, , March 8, 1906, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 14. Smith to Ireland, July 17, 1906, Smith Collection, box 2, folder 15.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ James, F. Smith to Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Cloverdale, CA, July 6, 1906, Smith Collection, box 1, folder 9.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ John, T. McDonough to Archbishop Ireland September 1903, George A. O'Reilly to Archbishop Ireland, February 1, 1904, Campbell to Archbishop Ireland, July 14, 1903, Ireland Collection, microfilm, reel 9.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Zwierlein, Frederick, Theodore and Catholics, 1898-1919 (St. Louis, 1956), p 115. Roosevelt took umbrage with Rooker and wrote a long, scathing reply. Roosevelt to Rooker, June 22, 1904, in Morison, , Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 840-843. Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Zwierlein, , Theodore Roosevelt and Catholics, 254. Hendrick wrote to a friend of Smith's that he had met male Catholic teachers who had left the service because of “palpable discrimination” against Catholic teachers. Hendrick also conveyed his disappointment to Roosevelt.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Reihold, Leonard to Barrows, David P., July 17, 1906, Barrows Collection, box 10, Incoming Correspondence.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ James, F. Smith to President Theodore Roosevelt, June 13, 1906. Smith Collection, box 1, folder 8. Smith wrote that Catholics “charged that I am an enemy of Catholic interests” and Protestants “charged that I am a bigoted Catholic whose principal business in life is to make it unpleasant for those not of my creed.” Dooley was the cartoon character made famous by Finley Peter Dunne.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Ibid. Google Scholar

⁶² Ibid. Google Scholar

⁶³ Clymer, , “Humanitarian Imperialism,” 500. Archbishop Jeremiah J. Harty to the Governor General and the Honorable Members of the Philippine Commission, February 27, 1906, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 10.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Taft, to Root, , November 22, 1902, Taft Papers, series 3, microfilm reel 37.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Leonard, E. Reihold to Barrows, David P., March 22, 1907, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” The Monitor, April 14, 1906, 14, microfilm, reel 11.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Richard Campbell to Archbishop Ireland, n.d.(probably July 1903, see July 14, 1903 letter), Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 9. Most Rev. J.J. Harty, Archbishop of Manila, “Superintendent Barrows on Bishop Salzar,” April 14, 1906, 4, 18; Ibid., “Barrows'(sic) ‘History of the Philippines,’” June 16, 1906,8; The Monitor, March 17, 1906, 7, microfilm, reel 11.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Leonard, E. Reihold to Barrows, David P., March 22, 1907, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” George A. O'Reilly to Archbishop John Ireland, October 25, 1906, Ireland Collection, microfilm reel 9. O'Reilly wrote that conditions now were better. Barrows was expected to return to California and not return to the Philippines. O'Reilly wrote that he expected to succeed Barrows as general superintendent and he thanked Ireland for his help. This did not come about. When Barrows retired from Philippine service the new governor general, W. Cameron Forbes, found Frank A. White more to his liking man O'Reilly. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines , 111–119.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Leonard, E. Reihold to Barrows, David P., March 22, 1907, Barrows Collection, box 10, “Incoming Correspondence.” Google Scholar

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