¹ Michael Martinez and Amanda Watts, “California Governor Signs Vaccine Bill that Bans Personal, Religious Exemptions,” CNN News (June 30, 2015), http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/30/health/california-vaccine-bill/index.html. For the decline in school immunizations and the 2015 outbreak of measles in California, see Majumder, M. S. et al. , “Substandard Vaccination Compliance and the 2015 Measles Outbreak,” JAMA Pediatrics 169, no. 5 (May 2015), 494–95CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

² I use the term anti-science here as defined by Webster's Dictionary: “A set or system of attitudes and beliefs that are opposed to or reject science and scientific methods and principles,” https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-science.

³ The primary sources for this study include contemporary newspapers, journals, books, and the records of the anti-vaccination societies housed in the archives of the Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.

⁴ Many historians have conflated these organizations to some degree, possibly because of the redundancy in their names. Public health historian John Duffy characterizes the nineteenth-century anti-vaccination movement as “filled with cranks, extremists, and charlatans.” See Duffy, , A History of Public Health in New York City, 1866–1966 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1974), 152Google Scholar. Also see Meckel, Richard A., Classrooms and Clinics: Urban Schools and the Protection and Promotion of Child Health, 1870–1930 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013), 65–66Google Scholar; and Kaufman, Martin, “The American Anti-Vaccinationists and their Arguments,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 41, no. 5 (Sept. 1967), 463–78Google ScholarPubMed. For the relationship between Progressive Era reform and anti-vaccination movements, see Colgrave, James, “'Science in a Democracy': The Contested Status of Vaccination in the Progressive Era and the 1920s,” Isis 92, no. 2 (June 2005), 167–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Richard A. Meckel, Classrooms and Clinics; Johnston, Robert D., The Radical Middle Class: Populist Democracy and the Question of Capitalism in Progressive Era Portland, Oregon (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Reese, William, Power and Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements During the Progressive Era (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002), 205–09Google Scholar; and Willrich, Michael, Pox: An American History (New York: Penguin Books, 2011), 246–84Google Scholar.

⁵ Woodward, Samuel Bayard, “The Story of Smallpox in Massachusetts,” New England Journal of Medicine 206, no. 23 (June 9, 1932), 1181–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ “Report of the Boston Board of Health,” Massachusetts Association of Boards of Health 4, no 2 (April 1894), 5Google Scholar.

⁷ Waterhouse, Benjamin, A Prospect of Exterminating the Small-pox; Being the History of the Variolae Vaccinae, or Kine-pox (Boston: Cambridge Press by William Hilliard, 1800)Google Scholar; and Blake, John Ballard, Public Health in the Town of Boston, 1630–1822 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), 178–83Google Scholar.

⁸ Kerr, J. W. and Moll, A. A., Communicable Diseases: An Analysis of the Laws and Regulations for the Control thereof in Force in the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 132Google Scholar. For a history of school vaccination laws, see Hodge, James G. and Gostin, Lawrence O., “School Vaccination Requirements: Historical, Social, and Legal Perspectives,” Kentucky Law Journal 90, no. 4 (Summer 2002), 831–90Google Scholar.

⁹ Frey, Sharon E. et al. , “Clinical Responses to Undiluted and Diluted Smallpox Vaccine,” New England Journal of Medicine 346, no. 17 (April 25, 2002), 1265–74CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Side Effects of Smallpox Vaccination,” https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/vaccine-basics/vaccination-effects.html.

¹⁰ Durback, Nadja, Bodily Matters: The Anti-Vaccination Movement in England, 1853–1907 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Porter, Dorothy and Porter, Roy, “The Politics of Prevention: Anti-Vaccinationism and Public Health in Nineteenth-Century England,” Medical History 32, no. 3 (July 1988), 231–52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; and Durbach, Nadja, “‘They Might as Well Brand Us’: Working-Class Resistance to Compulsory Vaccination in Victorian England,” Social History of Medicine 13, no. 1 (April 1, 2000), 45–63CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

¹¹ “Opposed to Vaccination. Doctors Who Condemn It—An Englishman's Views on the Subject,” New York Times (Oct. 11, 1879), 5. For a biography of Alexander Wilder, see Kelly, Howard Atwood, A Cyclopedia of American Medical Biography: Comprising the Lives of Eminent Deceased Physicians and Surgeons from 1610 to 1910 (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1920), 1235Google Scholar.

¹² “Opposed to Vaccination.”

¹³ Synopsis of Meetings of First Anti-Vaccination League of America, handwritten entry in a bound notebook of the League, Anti-Vaccination Society of America, Minutes, Correspondence, etc., 1895–1898, Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia (hereafter cited as AVSA). The treasurer and four members of the executive committee were all doctors. According to the synopsis, the League's books were lost.

¹⁴ Synopsis of Meetings of First Anti-Vaccination League of America, AVSA.

¹⁵ “Certificate of incorporation of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, Dec. 2, 1885. Incorporated in the City and County of New York,” AVSA.

¹⁶ Gunn, Robert Alexander, Vaccination: Its Fallacies and Evils (New York: Nickels Publishing, 1882), 1Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Alexander Ross, as quoted in Hodgetts, Charles A., Vaccination in Canada: A Reply to Pamphlet Published by the Provincial Board of Health, Ontario (Toronto, ON: The Anti-Vaccination League of Canada, 1907), 43–44Google Scholar. The anti-vaccinationist Porter F. Cope used Ross's arguments in “Compulsory Vaccination: Address to the Honorable the Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” Feb. 22, 1905, 4–5, Anti-vaccination Pamphlets, Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. For disputes over the scientific validity of vaccination, see Willrich, Pox: An American History, 248–51.

¹⁸ Montague R. Levenson to the Honorable the Board of Health, June 5, 1895, AVSA.

¹⁹ Alexander Wilder cites Wallace, Spencer, Herbert, and other scientists in The Fallacy of Vaccination (New York: Metaphysical Publishing, 1899)Google Scholar; and Wallace, Alfred Russel, The Wonderful Century; Its Successes and Failures (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1898), 213–316CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the impact of Wallace's arguments, see Fichman, Martin and Keelan, Jennifer, “Resister's Logic: The Anti-vaccination Arguments of Alfred Russel Wallace and Their Role in the Debates over Compulsory Vaccination in England, 1870–1907,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 38, no. 3 (Sept. 2007), 585–607CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰ Weber, Thomas P., “Alfred Russel Wallace and the Antivaccination Movement in Victorian England,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 16, no. 4 (April 2010), 664–68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. For the particulars of the Leicester Method, see Fraser, Stuart M., “Leicester and Smallpox: The Leicester Method,” Medical History 24, no. 3 (July 1980), 315–32CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. The Leicester Method was originally formulated in 1877. The premises of smallpox victims were thoroughly disinfected and all those quarantined were financially compensated for time lost for work.

²¹ “Certificate of Incorporation of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, December 2, 1885. Incorporated in the City and County of New York,” AVSA. For discussion of women in homeopathy, see Kirschmann, Anne Taylor, Vital Force: Women in American Homeopathy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 113–17Google Scholar.

²² For a history of homeopathy, see Robins, Natalie, Copeland's Cure: Homeopathy and the War Between Conventional and Alternative Medicine (New York: Knopf, 2009)Google Scholar. Also see Davidovitch, Nadav, “Negotiating Dissent: Homeopathy and Anti-Vaccinationism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” in The Politics of Healing: Histories of Alternative Medicine in Twentieth-Century North America, ed. Johnston, Robert D. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 11–28Google Scholar; and Leavitt, Judith Walzer, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996)Google Scholar. According Leavitt, during the late nineteenth century around one-third of Milwaukee's physicians agreed with the city's anti-vaccinationists and objected to the procedure, with homeopathic physicians divided over the issue.

²³ Magner, Lois N., A History of Infectious Diseases in the Microbial World (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009), 19–48Google Scholar. For discussion of economic factors supporting the miasma and filth theories of disease in the nineteenth century, see Tesh, Sylvia Noble, Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988), 7–32Google Scholar. Willrich notes that many anti-vaccinationists had not accepted the germ theory of disease by 1902; see Willrich, Michael, “‘The Least Vaccinated of Any Civilized Country’: Personal Liberty and Public Health in the Progressive Era,” in Constitution and Public Policy in U.S. History, ed. Zelizer, Julian E. and Schulman, Bruce J. (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), 81Google Scholar.

²⁴ Leverson, M. R., “Dr. Leverson's Work,” Letters and Comments, Health Culture 23, no. 5. (May 1917), 231Google Scholar. For a biography of Leverson, see Nolan, Frederick, The West of Billy the Kid (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 116Google Scholar.

²⁵ Montague R. Leverson, “In presenting to you the financial accounts of the Society,” Dec. 1895, in “Minutes of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America,” 49, AVSA.

²⁶ M. R. Leverson, “To the President and members of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, New York, May 18, 1897,” in “Minutes of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America,” 60, AVSA.

²⁷ “Vaccination Must Go!” The Kneipp Water Cure Monthly 2, no. 11 (Nov. 1901), 295Google Scholar; and M. R. Leverson to “Respected Friend,” May 18, 1898, AVSA. Leverson notes that Blue “is hereby appointed Secretary to the Society.” Anti-Vaccination Scrapbook, 1882–1903. AVSA.

²⁸ M. R. Leverson, “To the President and members of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, New York, May 18, 1897,” in “Minutes of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America,” 58, AVSA.

²⁹ Blue was a follower of T. V. Gifford, an Indiana physician and AVSA member who ran the Kokomo Invalid Sanitorium and began publishing The Journal of Hygeio-Therapy in 1887. Gifford's journal included information on the benefits of exercise, good nutrition, the water cure, phrenology, and methods of healing with magnets and electricity. By 1892, Gifford had added a small section supporting the anti-vaccination movement. See “The Late Dr. T. V. Gifford,” Phrenological Journal and Science of Health 116, no. 5 (Nov. 1903), 164Google Scholar. Blue's appointment to secretary is in Leverson to “Respected Friend,” May 18, 1898, AVSA.

³⁰ “Frank D. Blue Early Identified with Pennsylvania,” (Indiana) Daily Tribune, Feb. 7, 1903, 10. Emma Elizabeth Colket married Frank D. Blue in 1885. For genealogical information, see Rockefeller, Henry Oscar, ed., The Transactions of the Rockefeller Family Association for the Five Years, 1910–1914 with Genealogy (New York: Little & Ives, 1915), 267Google Scholar.

³¹ Frank D. Blue to M. R. Leverson, May 20, 1898, AVSA.

³² “Think It Is a Crime: Anti-Vaccinationists Small in Numbers but Great in Thought,” Indianapolis Journal, Dec. 13, 1893, 6.

³³ “Vaccination Not Compulsory. Important Decision of Judge Taylor of Terre Haute,” Indianapolis Journal, Dec. 23, 1893, 2.

³⁴ “An Important Case,” Indianapolis Journal, March 25, 1894, 4.

³⁵ “Of Local Interest,” Saturday Evening Mail (Terre Haute), December 18, 1897, 6.

³⁶ “The Anti-Vaccination Society of America. Special Announcements,” Vaccination 1, no. 10 (December 1898), 14Google Scholar.

³⁷ Blue, Frank D., editorial, Vaccination 2, no. 3 (April 1899), 2Google Scholar.

³⁸ Frank D. Blue to M. R. Leverson, May 12, 1898, AVSA.

³⁹ Brooklyn Daily Eagle Almanac, 1901 (Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1901), 308Google Scholar. “Anti-Vaccination League,” New York Times, Jan. 6, 1901, 5.

⁴⁰ “The Anti-Vaccination Society of America. Officers,” Vaccination 2, no. 12 (Jan. 1900), n.p.Google Scholar Of the eight officers listed in 1900, three were doctors. For the rapid advances in medicine during this period, see Conrad, Peter and Schneider, Joseph W., “Professionalization, Monopoly, and the Structure of Medical Practice,” in The Sociology of Health and Illness: Critical Perspectives, ed. Conrad, Peter (New York: Worth Publishers, 2009), 194–99Google Scholar; and Milstien, Julie B., “Regulation of Vaccines: Strengthening the Science Base,” Journal of Public Health Policy 25 no. 2 (April 2004), 173–89CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁴¹ Hanchett, W. H., “Scarlet Fever,” North American Journal of Homeopathy 42, no. 11 (Jan. 1894), 674Google Scholar.

⁴² Baker, Robert B., Caplan, Arthur L., Emanuel, Linda L., and Ltham, Stephen R., eds., The American Medical Ethics Revolution: How the AMA's Code of Ethics Has Transformed Physicians’ Relationships to Patients, Professionals, and Society (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 84Google Scholar.

⁴³ Baker, Robert B., Caplan, Arthur L., Emanuel, Linda L., and Latham, Stephen R., eds., The American Medical Ethics Revolution: How the AMA's Code of Ethics Has Transformed Physicians’ Relationships to Patients, Professionals, and Society (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 84Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ “Is Light Coming?,” Vaccination 1, no. 1 (Feb. 1898), 2Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ “Thoughts and Things,” Vaccination 1, no. 2 (March 1898), n.pGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ “Some Reasons Why You Should Not Be Vaccinated,” Vaccination 1, no. 7 (Aug.-Sept. 1898), 11Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Blue, Frank D., editorial, Vaccination 2, no. 2 (March 1899), 2Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ “FACT versus FICTION,” Vaccination 2, no. 8 (Sept. 1899), 6Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ “Quiet Talks to the Faithful,” Vaccination 7, no. 9 (July 1904), 69Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ “How to Prevent Smallpox,” Vaccination 6, no. 12 (Jan. 1906), 88Google Scholar. Blue's philosophy of healing was similar to that of other nineteenth-century naturopaths. For naturopathy, see Cayleff, Susan E., Nature's Path: A History of Naturopathic Healing in America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016), 144–77Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Miles, G. W., “Compulsory Vaccination,” American School Board Journal 21, no. 5 (Nov. 1900), 15Google Scholar; “Higher Court Decisions. Important Ruling on Question of Vaccination,” Indianapolis Journal (Feb. 2, 1900), 2; and “Retrospect,” Vaccination 3, no. 1 (Feb. 1900), 2Google Scholar.

⁵² Henning Jacobson v. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905). In Jacobson's case, Justice Harlan ruled that the medical exemption did not apply. For a detailed analysis of this case, see Walloch, Karen L., The Antivaccine Heresy: Jacobson v. Massachusetts and the Troubled History of Vaccination in the United States (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Gostin, Lawrence O., “Jacobson v. Massachusetts at 100 Years: Police Power and Civil Liberties in Tension,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 4 (April 2005), 576–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Willrich, Pox: An American History, 285–97.

⁵³ Gostin, “Jacobson v. Massachusetts at 100 Years”; and Willrich, Pox: An American History, 286.

⁵⁴ “Once Again,” Vaccination 8, no. 6 (July 1905), 47Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ “Random Notes,” Homeopathic Reporter 21, no. 10 (Oct. 1906), 478Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Allen, Arthur, Vaccine: The Controversial Story of Medicine's Greatest Lifesaver (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 102–3Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ “Anti-vaccination Reports on Alleged Casualties from Compulsory Vaccination in the Philadelphia Area,” Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. For the Philadelphia League, see Allen, Vaccine, 102–3; Colgrave, James, State of Immunity: The Politics of Vaccination in Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 46–47Google Scholar; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “What Is Smallpox?,” https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/about/index.html; and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Side Effects of Smallpox Vaccination.”

⁵⁸ Membership data calculated from entries in Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, “Receipts, Oct. 4, 1906-June 11, 1913,” Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.

⁵⁹ Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, ”Receipts”; and Cope, Porter F., “Compulsory Vaccination,” Columbus Medical Journal 32, no. 7 (July 1908), 360–62Google Scholar. In this article, Cope describes the Pennsylvania League's success in procuring passage of the Watson Anti-Vaccination Bill, which was vetoed by Governor Edwin S. Stuart.

⁶⁰ Allen, Vaccine, 102–3.

⁶¹ Higgins, Charles, as quoted in “New York City: More Small-Pox,” Journal of the American Medical Association 62, no. 20 (May 16, 1914), 1567Google Scholar. For information about Higgins, see “C. M. Higgins Dies: Ink Manufacturer,” New York Times, Oct. 23, 1929, 27.

⁶² Karen L. Walloch, “‘A Hot Bed of the Anti-vaccine Heresy’: Opposition to Compulsory Vaccination in Boston and Cambridge, 1890–1905” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2007), 7.

⁶³ Lora C. Little to John Pitcairn, as cited in Johnston, Robert D., “The Myth of the Harmonious City: Will Daly, Lora Little, and the Hidden Face of Progressive-Era Portland,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 99, no. 3 (Fall 1998), 273Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Johnston, The Radical Middle Class, 192–213. Johnston has done more than any other historian to date to recover the details of Little's activism. Also see Carley Roche, “Lora Little: The Vaccine Liberator,” Feb. 10, 2017, The History of Vaccines, College of Physicians of Philadelphia, https://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/blog/lora-little-vaccine-liberator.

⁶⁵ For the death of Little's son, see Kinch, Michael, Between Hope and Fear: A History of Vaccines and Human Immunity (New York: Pegasus Books, 2018), 45–47Google Scholar; and Little, Lora, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring: Some Moving Pictures Thrown on the Dead Wall of Official Silence (Minneapolis, MN: Liberator Publishing, 1906)Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Reading (Pennsylvania) Times, April 16, 1906, 2.

⁶⁷ Examples of these advertisements include Lora C. Little, “Nature-Cure Applied by an Expert,” Morning Oregonian, July 17, 1909, 13; Lora C. Little, “Be Your Own Doctor,” Morning Oregonian, Oct. 14, 1913, 15; and “Lora C. Little, Health Expert,” Morning Oregonian, July 3, 1916, 13.

⁶⁸ Lora C. Little, as cited in Johnston, The Radical Middle Class, 204.

⁶⁹ “Porter Farquharson Cope,” in Encyclopedia of Pennsylvania Biography, vol. 2, ed. Jordan, John W. (New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, 1914), 699–700Google Scholar. For Higgins's memberships, see “The Propaganda for Reform,” Journal of the American Medical Association 79, no. 5 (July 29, 1922), 396Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Blue is reported as president in “Resolutions Adopted at Banquet, Second Annual Meeting; American Medical Liberty League, Chicago, Oct. 26, 1920,” in White, George Starr, Think: Side Lights, What Others Say, Clinical Cases, Etc. (Los Angeles: George Starr White, 1920), 419Google Scholar.

⁷¹ First Report of the National League for Medical Freedom (New York: National League for Medical Freedom, 1910), 6Google Scholar; and Fowler, B. O., “The National League for Medical Freedom: Its Aim and Its Contention,” National Magazine 36, no. 1 (April 1912), 115Google Scholar. The editor's note to this article states that the organization “now has over a quarter of a million members,” but there is no way to verify this claim (p. 113).

⁷² Fisher, Irving, “National Health and Medical Freedom: Both Sides of a Question of Public Interest,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 85, no. 4 (Feb. 1913), 513–14Google Scholar; and Hamowy, Ronald, Government and Public Health in America (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2007), 343–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Medical journals during this period frequently noted the involvement of patent medicine interests in the National League for Medical Freedom. See Sims, J. Morgan, “The Owen Bill,” Illinois Medical Journal 21, no. 3 (March 1912), 383–85Google Scholar.

⁷³ “The Propaganda for Reform,” 396.

⁷⁴ For an example of these advertisements, see “The Ensign Remedies,” Suggestion 13 (1904), n.p. The Ensign advertisement appears with other advertising pages at the back of this Chicago monthly spiritualist magazine, http://www.iapsop.com/archive/materials/suggestion/suggestion_v13_adverts_and_loose_pages.pdf. For contemporary discussion of the Ensign remedies, see Helme, J. W., “A Cure for Disappointed Love,” Twenty-first Annual Report of the Dairy and Food Commissioner of the State of Michigan for the Year Ending June 30, 1914 (Lansing, MI: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford, State Printers, 1915), 195–96Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ For the rise of school medical inspections as a factor in Progressive Era anti-vaccination protest, see Johnston, The Radical Middle Class, 177–220; Colgrave, “Science in a Democracy,” 171–173; Reese, The Power and Promise of School Reform, 200–208; and Willrich, Pox: An American History, 246–84. For a contemporary history of medical inspections in schools, see Gulick, Luther Halsey and Ayres, Leonard P., Medical Inspection of Schools (New York: Dept. of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, 1913), 7–20Google Scholar; and Ayres, Leonard P., “What American Cities Are Doing for the Health of School Children,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 37, no. 2 (March 1911), 250–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁶ Blue announced his forthcoming role as superintendent of the Kokomo Invalid's Home Sanitarium “Important Notice,” Vaccination 7, no. 8 (Sept. 1904), 64. For the AMA's campaign against fraud, see Boyle, Eric W., Quack Medicine: A History of Combating Health Fraud in Twentieth-Century America (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2013), 61–90Google Scholar. For a history of the AMA, see Burrow, James G., AMA: Voice of American Medicine (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963)Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ See “Table 1.2: Flexner's Impact on U.S. and Canadian Schools,” in Rayburn, William F. and Schulkin, Jay, eds., Changing Landscape of Academic Women's Health Care in the United States (Berlin: Springer, 2011), 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the impact of the report on homeopathy, see Bellavite, Paolo, Conforti, Anita, Piasere, Valeria, and Ortolani, Riccardo, “Immunology and Homeopathy: Historical Background,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2, no. 4 (Dec. 2005), 441–52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

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⁷⁹ Fowler, B. O., Fowler, B. O., “National Health and Medical Freedom: Both Sides of a Question of Public Interest,” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, 85, no. 4 (Feb. 1913), 513Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ “The Soil for the Microbe,” Homeopathic Recorder 25, no. 2 (Feb. 1910), 90Google Scholar.

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⁸² As cited in Katzoff, Simon Louis, Timely Truths on Human Health (Bridgeport, CT: Cooperative Publishing, 1921), 348Google Scholar. For more information on Macfadden, see Ernst, Robert, Weakness Is a Crime: The Life of Bernarr Macfadden (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

⁸³ As cited in McNamara, Robert Emmette, Chiropractic, Other Drugless Healing Methods: With Criticism of the Practice of Medicine (Chicago: R. E. McNamara, 1913), 361–62Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ For discussion of nineteenth-century movements against quarantine and theories of contagion, see Ackerknecht, Erwin H., “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867,” International Journal of Epidemiology 38, no. 1 (Feb. 2009), 7–21CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; and Cooter, Roger, “Anticontagionism and History's Medical Record,” in The Problem of Medical Knowledge: Examining the Social Construction of Medicine, ed. Treacher, Andrew and Wright, Peter H. (Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1982), 87–108Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ Frank D. Blue, as cited in “Vaccination Harmful, Is Declaration,” Vancouver (BC) Sun, Oct. 30, 1923, 1.

⁸⁶ Pitcairn, John, Vaccination (Philadelphia: Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, 1907), 1Google Scholar. For the history of germ theory, see Waller, John, The Discovery of the Germ: Twenty Years That Transformed the Way We Think About Disease (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ “Medical Freedom and Vaccination,” Press Democrat (Santa Rosa, CA), Aug. 21, 1913, 5.

⁸⁸ “Local Branch of Medical League Makes Protest,” Bridgeport (CT) Times and Evening Farmer, Jan. 21, 1922, 10.

⁸⁹ “Seeks Medical Liberty,” (Washington, DC) Evening Star, Oct. 30, 1923, 39.

⁹⁰ Colgrave, “Science in a Democracy,” 190.

⁹¹ “Former Vandalia Man of Terre Haute Visits City,” Terre Haute Tribune, June 30, 1914, 9.

⁹² Kempe, C. Henry, “The End of Routine Smallpox Vaccination in the United States,” Pediatrics 49, no. 4 (April 1972), 489–92Google ScholarPubMed; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Smallpox Surveillance—Worldwide,” MMWR Weekly 46, no. 42 (Oct. 24, 1997), https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00049694.htm; and Erin Brodwin, “7 Human Diseases the World Is on the Cusp of Eradicating,” Business Insider, May 14, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com/diseases-that-are-almost-eradicated-2015-5.