1. Danbom, David B., Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900–1930 (Ames, Iowa, 1979), pp. 51–59, 121; Bowers, William L., The Country Life Movement in America, 1900–1920 (Port Washington, N.Y., 1975), p. 79; Nelson, Lowry, Rural Sociology: Its Origin and Growth in the United States (Minneapolis, 1969), pp. 8–13.Google Scholar

2. Tyack, David B., The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, Mass., 1974); Boyer, Paul, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978).Google Scholar

3. Carney, Mabel, Country Life and the Country School (Chicago, 1912), p. v.Google Scholar

4. Cubberley, Ellwood P., Rural Life and Education: A Study of the Rural-School Problem as a Phase of the Rural-Life Problem (Boston, 1914), p. 191.Google Scholar

5. Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public School Administration: A Statement of the Fundamental Principles Underlying the Organization and Administration of Public Education (Boston, 1919), p. 454. See also Cubberley, Ellwood P., State School Administration: A Textbook of Principles (Boston, 1927), p. 261; Betts, George Herbert, New Ideas in Rural Schools (Boston, 1913), pp. 35, 118–20; Lewis, Howard T., The Rural School and the Community (Boston, 1918), pp. 33–35; Arp, Julius Bernhard, Rural Education and the Consolidated School (Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1918), pp. 36–39; MacGarr, Llewellyn, The Rural Community (New York, 1922), pp. 74–139; Keppel, Ann M., “The Myth of Agrarianism in Rural Education Reform, 1890–1914,” History of Education Quarterly, 2 (June, 1962):100–112; Tyack, David B., “The Tribe and the Common School: Community Control in Rural Education,” American Quarterly, 24 (March, 1972):3–19; Wiebe, Robert H., “The Social Functions of Education,” American Quarterly, 21 (Summer, 1968):160–61; Fuller, Wayne E., The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Middle West (Chicago, 1982).Google Scholar

6. Eaton, Allen and Harrison, Shelby M., A Bibliography of Social Surveys: Reports of Fact-Finding Studies Made as a Basis for Social Action; Arranged by Subjects and Localities (New York, 1930), pp. xvii–xxx; Sears, Jesse B., The School Survey: A Textbook on the Use of School Surveying in the Administration of Public Schools (New York, 1925); Callahan, Raymond E., Education and the Cult of Efficiency: A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools (Chicago, 1962), pp. 112–20.Google Scholar

7. Fosdick, Raymond B., Adventure in Giving: The Story of the General Education Board (New York, 1962), passim; Anderson, James D., “Northern Foundations and the Shaping of Southern Black Rural Education, 1902–1935,” History of Education Quarterly, 18 (Winter, 1978):371–96; Gates, Frederick T., “The Country School of To-Morrow,” World's Work, 14 (August, 1912):460–66.Google Scholar

8. In 1924 the GEB also conducted a nationwide survey of the progress of the county unit in each state. The resuts were published in Burris, Benjamin J., “The County School System: How Organized and Administred,” Indiana Department of Public Instruction Educational Bulletin No. 73 (Indianapolis, 1924).Google Scholar

9. Cubberley, Ellwood P. to Judd, Charles H., October 13, 1914, Folder 2880, Papers of the General Education Board (Rockefeller Archive Center, Pocantico Hills, New York) (hereafter cited as GEB); Flexner, Abraham to Lee, Ivy L., November 25, 1922, Folder 2806, GEB; Flexner, Abraham, I Remember: The Autobiography of Abraham Flexner (New York, 1940), pp. 241–49; Fosdick, , Adventure in Giving, pp. 115–22.Google Scholar

10. Flexner, to Hanus, Paul, September 15, 1921, Folder 3241, GEB; Minutes of the General Education Board, September 21, 1921, GEB.Google Scholar

11. Public Education In Indiana: Report of the Indiana Education Survey Commission (New York, 1923), pp. 134, 140, 142, 265, 144.Google Scholar

12. Bachman, Frank P. to Flexner, , January 12, 20, 1923, Folder 3246, GEB; Curry, Charles to Bachman, , December 6, 1922, Folder 3245, GEB; Curry, to Flexner, , February 15, 1923, Folder 3246, GEB. For the context of the legislative battles and Indiana history generally in these years see Madison, James H., Indiana through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920–1945 (Indianapolis, 1982).Google Scholar

13. Bachman of Flexner, January 6, 1923, Folder 3246. See also Minutes of the General Education Board, February 23, 1923, GEB.Google Scholar

14. Minutes of the General Education Board, May 24, 1923, ibid.Google Scholar

15. U.S. Census Bureau, Fourteenth Census of the United States, Population, 1920 (Washington, 1923), pp. 292, 300; Bachman, Frank P., “County Unit Demonstration in Indiana,” typescript, June 29, 1923, Folder 3250, GEB. The most obviously atypical feature of either of the counties was the large Amish population in western LaGrange County, a factor little noticed in published or unpublished materials on the project. The 1926 Religious Census counted 1,057 Mennonites, most of whom were Amish Mennonites, among LaGrange County's 4,935 church members. U.S. Census Bureau, Religious Bodies: 1926 (Washington, 1930), v. 1, pp. 602–604. For interesting background on the two counties see Hanon, John W. (comp.), LaGrange County Centennial History (LaGrange, Ind., 1928); Report of the Board of Education: Johnson County, Indiana (n.p., 1913); and Graham, Patricia Albjerg, Community and Class in American Education, 1865–1918 (New York, 1974), pp. 27–67.Google Scholar

16. Bachman, , “County Unit Demonstration in Indiana,” Folder 3250, GEB; Smith, Henry Lester, A Survey of a Public School System (New York, 1917); Burris, Benjamin J., “Necessity of the County Unit for the Efficient Administration of Rural Schools,” National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings of the Sixty-First Annual Meeting … July 1–6, 1923 (Washington, D.C., 1923), pp. 789–95; Indianapolis Star, March 1, 1923.Google Scholar

17. Hughes, Hilda to Bachman, , March (?), 1923 Folder 3250, GEB. See also LaGrange, Standard, June 5, 1925.Google Scholar

18. See letters to Bachman from LaGrange County, March, 1923, in Folder 3250, GEB; LaGrange, Standard, March 9, 1923; Hughes, to Bachman, , May 18, 1925, Folder 3253, GEB.Google Scholar

19. Langvick, Mina M., “Report of Supervision in Johnson County, Indiana, 1923–1925,” typescript, Folder 3257, GEB; Franklin, Star, June 5, 1923.Google Scholar

20. Bachman, Frank P., “Indiana School Survey,” typescript, October 19, 1923, Folder 3247, GEB.Google Scholar

21. Bachman, to Flexner, , June 1, 1923, Folder 3250, ibid.Google Scholar

22. Minutes of the General Education Board, May 24, 1923, ibid.; Bachman, , “County Unit Demonstration in Indiana,” Folder 3250, ibid. Bachman, Frank P., “Memorandum re Indiana County Demonstrations,” typescript, August 30, 1923, Folder 3250, ibid.; Burris, Benjamin J., “Preliminary Report of Supervision in County Demonstrations,” Indiana Department of Public Instruction Educational Bulletin No. 74 (Indianapolis, 1924), pp. iv–v; LaGrange Standard, March 9, 1923; Franklin Star, September 25, 1923.Google Scholar

23. Bachman, , “Memorandum re Indiana County Demonstrations,” Folder 3250, GEB.Google Scholar

24. Ibid.; Bachman, Frank P., “Work Completed and in Prospect 1922–1923,” typescript, June 29, 1923, Folder 2806, GEB; LaGrange Standard, June 29, 1923.Google Scholar

25. Public Education in Indiana, p. 21.Google Scholar

26. Pittman, Marvin Summers, The Value of School Supervision (Baltimore, 1921); Borass, Julius and Selke, George A., Rural School Administration and Supervision (Boston, 1926); Anderson, C. J. and Jewell Simpson, I., The Supervision of Rural Schools (New York, 1932); Carney, Mabel, Country Life and the Country School, pp. 281–301; Dunn, Fannie W., “What is Rural School Supervision?” Journal of Rural Education, 3 (January, 1924): 198–203; Davidson, Isobel, “Rural School Supervision as an Agency for Improving Rural Schools,” Journal of Rural Education, 1 (September, 1921):3–12.Google Scholar

27. Flanagan, Kathryn, “Supervision in Our Rural Schools: A Demonstration,” Indiana Teacher, 69 (January, 1925:7.Google Scholar

28. Bachman, , “County Unit Demonstration in Indiana,” Folder 3250; Bachman, to Carney, , June 29, 1923, Folder 3250, GEB; LaGrange, Standard, January 25, 1924; Krackowizer, Alice M., “Report on Supervision in LaGrange County for General Education Board, 1924–1925,” Folder 3258, GEB; “Value of Rural School Supervision: Results of Two-Year Demonstration in Indiana,” Indiana Department of Public Instruction Educational Bulletin No. 84 (Indianapolis, 1926), pp. 14–21; Cremin, Lawrence A., Shannon, David A., and Townsend, Mary Evelyn, A History of Teachers College, Columbia University (New York, 1954), p 74. The four supervisors were Langvick, Mina M. and Fuller, Rachel Anne in County, Johnson and Hildebrand, Earna and Barnes, Ina G. in County, LaGrange. Barnes died in 1924 as was replaced by Jonine Amundsen, also a graduate of Teachers College. Krackowizer, Alice M. replaced Hildebrand after she left to get married in 1924.Google Scholar

29. Bachman, , “Memorandum re Indiana County Demonstrations,” Folder 3250, GEB.Google Scholar

30. LaGrange, Standard, September 7, 1923.Google Scholar

31. Bachman, Frank P., “For the Attention of the Executive Committee,” typescript, August 30, 1923, Folder 3250, GEB.Google Scholar

32. Shaw, Frank L. to Sherwood, Henry N., March 7, 1925, Folder 3253, ibid. Bachman estimated the cost of the four tests at $20,000. Bachman, , “For the Attention of the Executive Committee,” Folder 3250, ibid.Google Scholar

33. “Value of Rural School Supervision: Results of Two-Year Demonstration in Indiana,” 8, 10–11. See also “Preliminary Report on Supervision in County Demonstrations,” Indiana Department of Public Instruction Education Bulletin No. 74 (Indianapolis, 1924); LaGrange, Standard, May 1, 1925.Google Scholar

34. Sherwood, to Bachman, , September 14, 1926, Folder 3255, GEB.Google Scholar

35. Bachman, to Sherwood, , December 26, 1924, Folder 3252, ibid.Google Scholar

36. Yount, Warren J. to Bachman, , May 29, 1925, Folder 3253, ibid. Google Scholar

37. Burris, to Flexner, , June 22, 1923, Folder 3250; Burris, to Bachman, , November 16, 1923, Folder 3251, ibid.; Burris, Benjamin J., “County School Administration in Maryland…,” Indiana Department of Public Instruction Educational Bulletin 69 (n.p., 1923). In addition to Smith, Burris, Yount, and Hughes, the superintendents of Whitley and Rush counties made the visit to Maryland.Google Scholar

38. Bachman, to Smith, Henry L., May 6, 1925, Folder 3253, GEB.Google Scholar

39. Bachman, , “Memorandum re Indiana County Demonstrations,” Folder 3250, ibid.Google Scholar

40. Krackowizer, , “Report on Supervision in LaGrange County,” Folder 3258, ibid. Google Scholar

41. Bachman, to Flexner, , October 16, 1923, Folder 2806, ibid. This attempt to restructure the rural school program grew out of widely accepted notions that “The greatest fault in the rural program is in the large number of classes reciting daily.” Barnes, Ina G., Rural School Management (New York, 1923), p. 97. Barnes' book was published soon after she arrived in LaGrange County. It is a volume in Macmillan's Rural Education Series, edited by Mabel Carney. See also Reinoehl, Charles M., “Organization of One-Teacher Schools,” Journal of Rural Education, 1 (October, 1921):49–59.Google Scholar

42. Carney, to Burris, , March 7, 1924, Folder 3252, GEB.Google Scholar

43. Burris, to Bachman, , September 13, 1924, Folder 3252, ibid.Google Scholar

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45. Krackowizer, Alice M. to Bachman, , May 27, 1925, Folder 3253, GEB.Google Scholar

46. Gray, Mark R. (ed.), Historical Resume of the Indiana State Association of Township Trustees (Indianapolis, 1931); Adams, Jesse E., “What County Superintendents Do in Indiana, and Their Relation to the County Board of Education” (Masters thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1922), pp. 42, 46–47; Public Education in Indiana, pp. 133–48.Google Scholar

47. Bachman, , “Memorandum re Indiana County Demonstrations,” Folder 3250, GEB.Google Scholar

48. Bachman, to Flexner, , October 16, 1923, Folder 3251, ibid.Google Scholar

49. “Value of Rural School Supervision: Results of Two-Year Demonstration in Indiana,” 6. See also Bachman, to Burris, , October 1, 1924, Folder 3252, GEB.Google Scholar

50. Krackowizer, , “Report on Supervision in LaGrange County,” Folder 3258, GEB. See also Langvick, Mina M., “Report of Supervision in Johnson County, Indiana, 1923–1925,” typescript, Folder 3257, ibid.Google Scholar

51. Burris, to Bachman, , September 13, 1924, Folder 3252, ibid.Google Scholar

52. Burris, to Bachman, , December 22, 1923, Folder 3251, ibid.Google Scholar

53. Swope, A. D. to “Dear Brother Trustee,” October 24, 1924, copy in Folder 3252, ibid. See also Burris, to Bachman, , November 8, 1924, ibid.; Indiana State Party Platforms, Scrapbook I (Indiana Division, Indiana State Library, Indianapolis); Indianapolis News, May 9, 1924, November 3, 1924; Franklin Star, November 3, 1924.Google Scholar

54. Sherwood, to Bachman, , January 30, 1925, Folder 3253, GEB. On the margin of this letter Wickliffe Rose, president of the GEB, wrote “GEB has no funds for such purposes.” See also Sherwood, to Bachman, , February 2, 1925, ibid.Google Scholar

55. Bachman, to Sherwood, , February 13, 1925, ibid.; Sherwood, to Bachman, , February 17, 1925, ibid.Google Scholar

56. Hughes, to Bachman, , June 3, 1925, ibid.Google Scholar

57. LaGrange, Standard, June 5, 1925; Amundsen, Jonine to Bachman, , July 24, 1925, Folder 3253, GEB.Google Scholar

58. LaGrange, Standard, May 11, 1923.Google Scholar

59. Shaw, to Bachman, , January 11, 1924, Folder 3252, GEB.Google Scholar

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63. Barker, Perry M. to editor, Indianapolis Star , January 4, 1925. See also Hanan, , LaGrange County Centennial History, pp. 32–33.Google Scholar

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65. Amundsen, to Bachman, , July 24, 1925, Folder 3253, ibid.Google Scholar

66. Bachman, to Smith, , April 4, 1925, ibid.; Bachman to Krackowizer, December 29, 1925, ibid. Bachman's initial enthusiasm for the Indiana project was clearly based on the assumption that the benefits would extend to the Midwest generally, not just Indiana. Bachman, , “County Unit Demonstration in Indiana,” Folder 3250 ibid.; Bachman, , “Indiana School Survey,” Folder 3247, ibid.Google Scholar

67. Hughes, Hilda, “Lessons in Supervision of Rural Schools from the Indiana Experiment,” typescript, Folder 3258, ibid. Hughes only briefly acknowledged resistance to the project. See also Hughes, Hilda, “Lessons in Supervision of Rural Schools From the Indiana Experiment,” Journal of Rural Education, 5 (September-October, 1925):39–50.Google Scholar

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69. Even Dean Smith failed to use the project findings in a study where they could have been most relevant. Smith, Henry Lester and Noffinger, Forest Ruby, “A Basis for the Improvement of Education in Rural Monroe County, Indiana,” Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, 12 (1936):54–55, 61. And a study of LaGrange County schools in 1930–1931 failed even to mention the 1923–1925 project. Hamilton, Otto T. and Murray, Clarence L., “A School Survey of LaGrange County, Indiana,” Bulletin of the Extension Division, Indiana University, 17 (1931). For one follow-up study, see Marshall, Justin E., “A Study of Achievement of the Pupils in Johnson and Whitley Counties” (Masters thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1928).Google Scholar

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