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¹⁷ Furumoto, , “Joining Separate Spheres,” 176. Maria Mitchell discovered a comet in 1847 and worked in astronomical research for the U.S. Navy's Nautical Almanac before becoming a professor at Vassar. Like Ladd-Franklin, Mitchell spent much of her life working for women's equality in the academy. See Renée Bergland, Maria Mitchell and the Sexing of Science: An Astronomer among the American Romantics (Boston: Beacon, 2008).Google Scholar

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²⁴ Magill earned only a “third” on the Cambridge classical tripos, but she was the first American woman to pass the exams. Altschuler, Glenn C., Better Than Second Best: Love and Work in the Life of Helen Magill (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 44–58.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Gilman, Daniel Coit to Ladd, Christine, 26 April 1878, Box 4, CLF-FF Papers. Universities kept many women off enrollment lists in order to avoid setting any precedents for the admission of women. For the case of Thomas, M. Carey at Hopkins, Johns, see The Making of a Feminist: Early Journals and Letters of M. Carey Thomas, ed. Dobkin, Marjorie H. (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1979), 149–50.Google Scholar

²⁹ Royce told his students, “It is rather remarkable that the crowning activity in a field worked over since the days of Aristotle should be the achievement of an American woman.” “Professor Royce on an American Woman's Work,” New York Evening Post, n.d., Box 14, CLF-FF Papers. For the thesis itself, see Ladd, Christine, “On the Algebra of Logic,” in Studies in Logic, ed. Peirce, Charles S. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1883), 17–71. For a brief exposition of Ladd-Franklin's concept of the “antilogism,” see Shen, Eugene, “The Ladd-Franklin Formula in Logic: The Antilogism,” Mind 36 (1927): 54–60.Google Scholar

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³⁴ Diehl, , Americans and German Scholarship, 141. See also Veysey, , Emergence of the American University, 129; Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossing: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998), 85.Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ Mazón, , Gender and the Modern Research University, 87.Google Scholar

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⁴² The others included Channing, Eva and Parker, Harriet, whom Thomas met at Leipzig, , and Kelley, Florence, whom Thomas recommended to go to Zurich. See Singer, Adventures Abroad, 56–57, 136; Sklar, Kathryn K., Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830–1900 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 67–68, 80–90.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ Christine Ladd-Franklin to Aunt, 16 January 1886, Box 2, CLF-FF Papers.Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ Of these eleven, five studied math or physics; one each studied biology, botany, classics, German and French, philosophy, and psychology. Julia Warner Snow went to Switzerland: she studied botany at Zurich in 1891–1892. Maltby, History of the Fellowships, 13–19.Google Scholar

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⁵³ Rossiter, , Women Scientists in America, 328, n. 15. Rossiter's speculation gains some credence when one considers that a total of thirty-two letters from Wendell Garrison, the Nation's literary editor, survive in Ladd-Franklin's papers; half are from the period between 1891 and 1895. See Box 4, CLF-FF Papers. The letters and reports in the Nation include Isabelle Bronk, “Women at the University of Leipzig,” Nation, 18 December 1890, 480–81; Crow, Martha F., “Women in European Universities,” Nation, 31 March 1892, 247; “Coeducation in German Universities,” Nation, 21 July 1892, 42–43; Wheeler, Benjamin I., “A Woman's Doctorate at Heidelberg,” Nation, 28 December 1893, 483–84; X., “An Old-World Lesson,” Nation, 11 January 1894, 28; J. B. S., “Women at the German Universities,” Nation, 8 February 1894, 116–17; M. F. K., “Women at the German Universities,” Nation, 22 February 1894, 137; J. B. S., “Women at the German Universities,” Nation, 1 March 1894, 154; Luxenberg, Adele, “Women at Leipzig,” Nation, 4 October 1894, 247–48; J. B. S., “Women at Leipzig University,” Nation, 11 October 1894, 268; A. B., “An American Woman at the German Universities,” Nation, 25 March 1897, 223–24. Anja Becker discusses the many Leipzig-related reports in the Nation in Becker, “How Daring She Was!,” 31–46.Google Scholar

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⁵⁵ Chicago and Stanford opened during these years and admitted women from the start. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America, 34.Google Scholar

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⁵⁸ Those schools were the Catholic University, Clark, Hopkins, Johns, and Princeton. Harvard allowed women into graduate courses only through Radcliffe. M. Carey Thomas, “Education of Women,” in Education in the United States: A Series of Monographs, ed. Butler, Nicholas M. (New York: American Book Company, 1910), 349.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Women were more likely to get doctorates in the humanities (102 degrees, with English the top choice) than in the social sciences (66, mostly education and history) or the natural sciences (48, spread mainly among chemistry, botany, math, and zoology). The fields for the rest of the women are unknown. Eells, “Earned Doctorates for Women,” 646–48.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ Ladd-Franklin turned down an offer from Bryn Mawr in 1889. Ladd-Franklin, Christine to Thomas, M. Carey, 19 May 1889, Box 6, CLF-FF Papers.Google Scholar

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