1 Terminology which historians have utilized for Hispanic Americans is not merely a question of syntax, but also a micro-history in itself as historians and Hispanics have negotiated how they will be represented and who will represent them. Each term has posed issues of political and ethnic identity often leaving the scholar, the U.S. Government and Hispanic Americans themselves dissatisfied. In this essay, I utilize the more inclusive terms “Latino,” and “Hispanic American,” although among some groups, particularly Mexican Americans, “Hispanic” connotes elitism. Many Mexican Americans prefer “Chicano/a,” a term developed during the Mexican American Civil Rights era. Others, who identify less with the radical elements of Chicanismo, prefer “Latino/a.” For an extended discussion, see Suzanne Obeler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Identity and the Politics of (Re) Presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).Google Scholar

2 The definition of “education” in this exploratory essay is rather narrowly confined to arrangements for the schooling of children in pre-baccalaureate religious, non-sectarian private or public institutions. It is anticipated that future work will more fully examine the higher education of Latinos and broader configurations of education.Google Scholar

3 Bailyn, Bernard Education in the Forming of American Society: Needs and Opportunities for Study (New York: Vintage Books, 1960).Google Scholar

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5 “Forum: ‘Why the West is Lost': Comments and Response,” William and Mary Quarterly 3d ser., vol. 51 (October 1994), quote on 717. See pp.717–754 for a lively exchange between scholars on the meaning of multiculturalism in the study of early American history.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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7 Weber, David J. in particular utilizes this term. Through several essays and books he has carried out a concerted effort to integrate Hispanic American history into mainstream American history. See Weber, “The Spanish Legacy in North America and the Historical Imagination,” Western Historical Quarterly 23 (February 1992): 4–24. For useful background on the U.S. historical profession's attitudes towards Spain, see Richard L. Kagan, “Prescott's Paradigm: American Historical Scholarship and the Decline of Spain,” American Historical Review 101, no.2 (April 1996): 423–446.Google Scholar

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9 Ausubel, Herman Historians and Their Craft: A Study of the Presidential Addresses of the American Historical Association, 1884–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1950), 19.Google Scholar

10 Hofstadter, Richard quoted in Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 68–69.Google Scholar

11 Tentler, Leslie Woodcock “On the Margins: The State of American Catholic History,“ American Quarterly 45 (March 1993: 104–127; and Novick, That Noble Dream, p. 69, n.9.Google Scholar

12 Childers, J. Wesley and other scholars of language history observe that within the American University, Spanish “had an uphill fight for respectability in the twentieth century.” German and French were the preferred languages in graduate schools for masters and doctoral candidates who were required to demonstrate reading knowledge of a modern foreign language. See Childers, “Effects of Wars and Politics on Modern Foreign Languages,” chap. 2 in Foreign Language Teaching (New York: Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc. 1964), 20. See also Eric W. Hawkins, Modern Languages in the Curriculum, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

13 Frederick Law Olmstead's travels and observations of the nineteenth century American South, for example, are valuable collections to utilize in tandem with other documentary evidence.Google Scholar

14 Dana, Richard Henry Jr., Two Years Before the Mast and Twenty-Four Years After (New York: International Collectors Library, [1840?]), 67.Google Scholar

15 Morison, Samuel Eliot The Oxford History of the American People (New York: Oxford Press, 1972), 558.Google Scholar

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17 Jordan, Winthrop D. Greenblatt, Miriam, and Bowes, John S. The Americans: A History (Evanston, IL: McDouglas, Little & Co., 1994), 319. This textbook is used widely by advanced middle school students and high school students throughout the United States today.Google Scholar

18 See also Richard Hoftstadter's Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), esp. chapter 9.Google Scholar

19 Smith, Justin H. The War With Mexico (New York: Macmillan Company, 1919), 3–4.Google Scholar

20 Ibid., The War With Mexico, 3–4 and Notes, 407.Google Scholar

21 Frederick Merk captures the flavor of American attitudes towards Mexico in his revisionist work, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation (New York: Vintage Books, 1966). Also see Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981).Google Scholar

22 Nevins, Allan and Steele Commager, Henry, America, the Story of a Free People (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1942), 420.Google Scholar

23 Carrión, Arturo Morales Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1983), 132.Google Scholar

24 Traditional interpretations of the War of 1898 include Walter Millis's The Martial Spirit: A Study of our War with Spain (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931), and Frank Friedel's The Splendid Little War (New York: Bramhall House, 1958).Google Scholar

25 Commager, Nevins and America, 426.Google Scholar

26 Jumonville, Neil “Liberals and the Historical Past, 1948–1997,“ chap. 9 in Henry Steele Commager: Midcentury Liberalism and the History of the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 230–259.Google Scholar

27 Jacobs, Wilbur R. On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994); and Nash, Gerald D. Creating the West: Historical Interpretations 1890–1990 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991).Google Scholar

28 Limerick, Patricia Nelson is one of the architects of the “New Western History” who critiques Turner. See Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1987).Google Scholar

29 Magnaghi, Russell M. Herbert E. Bolton and the Historiography of the Americas (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998); Bannon, John Francis Herbert Eugene Bolton: The Historian and the Man, 1870–1953 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1978); and Weber, David J. “John Francis Bannon and the Historiography of the Spanish Borderlands: Retrospect and Prospect,” in Establishing Exceptionalism: Historiography and the Colonial Americas ed. Amy Turner Bushnell, vol. 5 of An Expanding World: The European Impact on World History (Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1995), 297–330.Google Scholar

30 Bolton, Herbert E. Wider Horizons of American History (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1939); and Herbert Ingram Priestley (Bolton's student) The Coming of the White Man, 1492–1848 (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929).Google Scholar

31 See Hudson, Charles “Research on the Eastern Spanish Borderlands,“ in Lawrence A. Clayton, The Hispanic Experience in North America: Sources for Study in the United States (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1992), 81–95.Google Scholar

32 García, Mario T. “Carlos E. Castañeda and the Search for History,“ chap. 9 in Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, & Identity, 1930–1960 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 231–251.Google Scholar

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34 See Martínez, Oscar J. ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1996).Google Scholar

35 Bogardus, Emory S. The Mexican Immigrant: An Annotated Bibliography (Los Angeles: The Council on International Relations, 1929); and The Mexican in the United States (Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1934); Manuel, Hershel T. “The Educational Problem Presented by the Spanish-Speaking Child of the Southwest,” School and Society 40 (1934): 692–695. Although published after World War II, two important works of this genre are Hershel T. Manuel's Spanish-Speaking Children of the Southwest: Their Education and the Public Welfare (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965), and Thomas P. Carter's Mexican Americans in School: A History of Educational Neglect (Princeton, NJ: College Entrance Examination Board, 1970). See also Matthew Davis, “Herschel T. Manuel and Latino Educational Policy, 1925–1975” (Ph.D. Diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2000).Google Scholar

36 Getz, Lynne Marie “Extending the Helping Hand to Hispanics: The Role of the General Education Board in New Mexico in the 1930s,“ Teachers College Record 93 (Spring 1992: 500–515.Google Scholar

37 Sánchez, George I. pioneered research on the value of bilingual/bicultural education for Latinos. Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940) began a lifelong crusade for the improvement of Latino conditions. See Steven Schlossman, “Self-Evident Remedy? George I. Sánchez, Segregation, and Enduring Dilemmas in Bilingual Education,” in Teachers College Record 84 (Summer 1983): 871–907; “George I. Sánchez in New Mexico” in Lynne Marie Getz, Schools of Their Own: The Education of Hispanos in New Mexico, 1850–1940 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997), 48–65; García's, Mario T. “George I. Sánchez and the Forgotten People,” in Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930–1960 ed. Mario T. Garcia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 252–272; and Welsh, Michael “A Prophet Without Honor: George I. Sánchez and Bilingualism in New Mexico,“ New Mexico Historical Review 69 (January 1994): 19–34.Google Scholar

38 Frisk, Jerome and Robinson, Forrest G. introduction to The New Western History: The Territory Ahead ed. F.G. Robinson (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998), 5.Google Scholar

39 Saragoza, Alex M. “Recent Chicano Historiography: An Interpretive Essay,“ Aztlan 19, (1990): 1–77, esp. 46; McMillen, Liz “Hot Young Author and a Fresh Slant on U.S. History Add Up to Much-Honored Book on American Southwest,” The Chronicle of Higher Education 2 December 1992, A8; and Gordon, Linda The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

40 See for example, Deutsch, Sarah No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Hurtado, Albert L. Intimate Frontiers: Sex, Gender, and Culture in Old California (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999); and Haas, Lisbeth Conquests and Historical Identities in California, 1769–1936 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). Elizabeth Jameson and Susan Armitage have brought together the most recent work on women and the west, including diverse groups such as Native Americans and Hispanics in Writing the Range: Race, Class, and Culture in the Women's West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).Google Scholar

41 Rosales, F. Arturo Chicano!: The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement (Houston: University of Houston, Arte Público Press, 1996).Google Scholar

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44 See also the sketch of Acuña's political activism by Martínez, Elizabeth “Brown David v. White Goliath,“ Z Magazine (January 1996): 57–62 and his own continuing political agenda in Acuña, Sometimes There is No Other Side: Chicanos and the Myth of Equality (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998).Google Scholar

45 Several historiographical essays analyze this literature. See, for example, Gilbert G. González and Raúl Fernández, “Chicano History: Transcending Cultural Models,” Pacific Historical Review 63 (November 1994): 469–497; Griswold del Castillo, Richard “Chicano Historical Discourse: An Overview and Evaluation of the 1980s,“ Perspectives in Mexican American Studies 4 (1993): 1–25; Saragoza, Alex M. “Recent Chicano Historiography: An Interpretive Essay”; Poyo, Gerald E. and Hinojosa, Gilberto M. “Spanish Texas and Borderlands Historiography in Transition: Implications for United States History,” Journal of American History 75 (September 1988): 393–416; and García, Mario T. “The Hispanic in American History: Myth and Reality—A Review of L.H. Gann & Peter J. Duigan, The Hispanic in the United States: A History,” Latino Studies Journal (January 1991): 75–85.Google Scholar

46 Gonzales, Manuel G. Mexicanos: A History of Mexicans in the United States (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 4. This book provides an excellent overview for the non-specialist, synthesizing the historical literature on the Mexican American experience in a balanced and informative manner. See also the recent overview by Chicano historians Richard Griswold del Castillo and Arnoldo De León, North to Aztlán: A History of Mexican Americans in the United States (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996).Google Scholar

47 Examples of these works include Albert Camarillo's Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848–1930 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979); García, Mario T. Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930–1960 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Griswold del Castillo, Richard La Familia: Chicano Families in the Urban Southwest 1848 to the Present (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984); and Ruiz, Vicki Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930–1950 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987).Google Scholar

48 Sánchez's, George J. Becoming Mexican-American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (New York: Oxford Press, 1993) won the History of Education Society's Outstanding Book Award.Google Scholar

49 Carola, and Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo Transformations: Immigration, Family Life and Achievement Motivation Among Latino Adolescents (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

50 Ruiz, Vicki L. “Star Struck: Acculturation, Adolescence, and the Mexican American Woman, 1920–1950,“ in Between Two Worlds: Mexican Immigrants in the United States ed. Gutiérrez, David G. (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1996), 125–147.Google Scholar

51 Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, 250–251. Google Scholar

52 Ibid.Google Scholar

53 For the role of this elite class in the Southwest, see Pitt, Leonard The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846–1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966).Google Scholar

54 See the discussion in Berlin, Ira ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987).Google Scholar

55 An excellent example of this new scholarship is Pérez, Emma The Decolonial Imaginary: Writing Chicanas Into History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

56 The first reflective collection of essays on Chicano historiography summarizes these debates. See Refugio I. Rochín and Dennis N. Valdés, eds., Voices of a New Chicana/o History (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000).Google Scholar

57 Several works written by journalists or immigration specialists have pulled all Latino groups into one monograph. Juan Gonzalez's Harvest of Empire (New York: Viking Press, 2000) is the first strictly historical monograph although written in a style for broader audiences rather than historians.Google Scholar

58 For a history of this struggle, see Alma M. García's Chicana Feminist Thought. Google Scholar

59 Miguel, Guadalupe San Jr., “Status of the Historiography of Chicano Education: A Preliminary Analysis,” History of Education Quarterly 26 (Winter 1986): 523–536. The three women cited were Shirley Brice Heath, Diane Ravitch, and Ruth Ann Fogarte. Note that also in 1986 Abraham Hoffman surveyed Chicano history, selecting six prominent works by male authors. See “The Writing of Chicano Urban History: From Bare Beginnings to Significant Studies,” Journal of Urban History 12 (February 1986): 199–205. A valuable critique of this literature is Ramón A. Gutiérrez, “Community, Patriarchy and Individualism: The Politics of Chicano History and the Dream of Equality,” American Quarterly 45 (March 1993): 44–72.Google Scholar

60 Ruiz, Vicki is a leader in championing Latina, particularly Chicana, studies. Her most recent work is From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). See also Victoria-Maria MacDonald, “Hispanic American Women,” in Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States ed. Linda Eisenmann (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 201–203; entries for several Latino educators in Maxine Seller, ed., Women Educators in the United States, 1820–1993: A Bio-bibliographic Sourcebook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994); Mirandé, Alfredo and Enríquez, Evangelina, La Chicana: The Mexican-American Woman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Elsasser, Ana et al., Las Mujeres: Conversations from a Hispanic Community (Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press, 1980); Mora, Magdalena and del Castillo, Adelaida R. eds., Mexican Women in the United States: Struggles Past and Present (Los Angeles: UCLA, Chicano Studies Research Center Publications, 1979); and bibliographical entries for Latinas in Ruiz, Vicki L. and Carol DuBois, Ellen, Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 3d ed. (New York: Routledge Press, 2000).Google Scholar

61 Roosevelt, Theodore The Rough Riders (New York: Scribner, 1899).Google Scholar

62 Merk, Frederick Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 256–7.Google Scholar

63 Helpful historiographical essays of this era include Paterson, Thomas G. “United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898: Interpretations of the Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War,“ The History Teacher 29 (May 1996: 341–61; DeSantis, Hugh “The Imperialistic Impulse and American Innocence, 1865–1900,“ in American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review ed. Haines, Gerald K. and Samuel Walker, J. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 65–90; and Crapol, Edward Pl. “Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth Century American Foreign Relations,“ Diplomatic History (Fall 1992): 573–97.Google Scholar

64 Earlier historians such as Richard Hofstadter had already begun to question U.S. imperialism in Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955). See also Philip S. Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism 1895–1902, vol. II, 1898–1902 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972); Foner, Philip S. and Winchester, Richard C. The Anti-Imperialist Reader: A Documentary History of Anti-Imperialism in the United States (London: Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc. 1984); Bradford, James C. ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1993), 205–49; Hunt, Michael Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987); and Healy, David Drive to Hegemony: the United States in the Caribbean, 1898–1911 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).Google Scholar

65 Monge, José Trías Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997); Santiago-Valles, Kelvin A. “Subject People” and Colonial Discourses: Economic Transformation and Social Disorder in Puerto Rico, 1898–1947 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994); Carrión, Arturo Morales Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1983); Pérez, Louis A. Jr., Essays on Cuban History: Historiography and Research (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1995); Pérez, Louis A. Jr. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuban in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).Google Scholar

66 Félix, V. Rodríguez, Matos, “New Currents in Puerto Rican History: Legacy, Continuity, and Challenges of the ‘Nueva Historia',” Latin American Research Review 32 (1997): 193–208.Google Scholar

67 Virginia, E. Korrol, Sánchez, From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, rev. ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994; originally published in 1983).Google Scholar

68 Glazer, Nathan and Patrick Moynihan, Daniel, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963); and Sexton, Patricia Cayo Spanish Harlem, Anatomy of Poverty (New York: Harper & Row, 1965).Google Scholar

69 Ortiz, Altagracia “Introduction,“ in Ortiz, ed. Puerto Rican Women and Work: Bridges in Transnational Labor (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), 2; and for analyses of Puerto Rican migration see Carlos Antonio Torre, Hugo Rodríguez Vecchini, William Burgos, eds. The Commuter Nation: Perspectives on Puerto Rican Migration (Ríos Pedras, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1994).Google Scholar

70 A sampling of the newer works on Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans in the U.S. (restricted to English language works emphasizing history) include: María Cristina García, Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994 (Berkeley: University of California, Press); Olson, James and Olson, Judith E. Cuban Americans: From Trauma to Triumph (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995); Boswell, Thomas D. and Curtis, James R. The Cuban-American Experience: Culture, Images, and Perspectives (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allaheld, 1983); Cortés, Carlos E. ed., The Cuban Experience in the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1980); Masud-Piloto, Felix With Open Arms: The Political Dynamics of the Migration from Revolutionary Cuba to the United States (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1988); Padilla, Felix Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985); Mormino, Gary R. and Pozzetta, George E. The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and Their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885–1985 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Glasser, Ruth My Music is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and their New York Communities, 1917–1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994); Fitzpatrick, J.P. Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland, 2d ed. (Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987); and Haslip-Viera, Gabriel and Baver, Sherrie, eds., Latinos in New York: A Community in Transition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994).Google Scholar

71 Portes, Alejandro and Bach, Robert L. Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).Google Scholar

72 Lazerson, Marvin “Understanding American Catholic Education History,“ History of Education Quarterly 17 (Fall 1977: 297–317; and Sanders, James W. The Education of an Urban Minority: Catholics in Chicago, 1833–1965 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

73 Cremin, Lawrence A. The Wonderful World of Ellwood Patterson Cubberley: An Essay on the Historiography of American Education (New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, Teachers’ College, 1965), 1–35.Google Scholar

74 Boone, Richard G. Education in the United States: Its History, From the Earliest Settlements (1889; reprint, Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1971), 244.Google Scholar

75 Monroe, Paul A Textbook in the History of Education (New York: Macmillan, originally published 1905). This book was reissued and circulated more widely in a condensed version titled, A Brief Course in the History of Education (New York: Macmillan, 1907).Google Scholar

76 Dexter, Edwin Grant A History of Education in the United States (1906; reprint, New York: Burt Franklin, 1971), 131–132.Google Scholar

77 Dexter, A History of Education, 133.Google Scholar

78 Ibid, 142.Google Scholar

79 Ibid, 142–3.Google Scholar

80 Ibid, 146–7.Google Scholar

81 Shea, John Gilmary History of the Catholic Church in the United States, Vol. IV, 1844–1866, With Portraits, Views, Maps and Fac-similes (New York: D.H. McBride & Co., 1886), 345.Google Scholar

82 Eby, Frederick Education in Texas: Source Materials, University of Texas Bulletin, No. 1824 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1918). See also his narrative, The Development of Education in Texas (New York: Macmillan Co., 1925).Google Scholar

83 Sears, Jesse B. and Henderson, Adin D. Cubberley of Stanford and his Contribution to American Education (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957), 119.Google Scholar

84 Cubberley, Ellwood P. Public Education in the United States: A Study & Interpretation of American Educational History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947), 489.Google Scholar

85 Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, 485–6.Google Scholar

86 For example, Emory S. Bogardus's work, The Mexican in the United States (Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1934) contains excellent historical data. See also Annie Reynolds, The Education of Spanish-Speaking Children in Five Southwestern States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education Bulletin 1933, No. 11). The comprehensive bibliographies which the U.S. Department of Education produced during the 1920s and 1930s include numerous references useful to educational historians. See Katherine Cook and Florence E. Reynolds, The Education of Native and Minority Groups, A Bibliography, 1923–32 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Education Bulletin No. 12, 1933).Google Scholar

87 Osuna, Juan José A History of Education in Puerto Rico (Rio Pedras, P.R.: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1949); Berger, Max “Education in Texas during the Spanish and Mexican Periods,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly (July 1947): 41–53; Donnelly, Thomas C. “Educational Progress in New Mexico and Some Present Problems,” New Mexico Quarterly Review (Autumn 1946): 305–17.Google Scholar

88 McClellan, James E. “English School in Spanish St. Augustine, 1805“ in Education in Florida Past and Present, Florida State University Studies No. 15 (Tallahassee: Florida State University, 1954), 1–5. This study, for example, points out the richness of papers housed in the Library of Congress that document the period of Spanish occupation and indicates that the collection has been microfilmed.Google Scholar

89 Cappon, Lester J. foreword to Education in the Forming of American Society: Needs and Opportunities for Study by Bernard Bailyn (New York: Vintage Books, 1960), x.Google Scholar

90 Readers interested in the content politics of the revisionist tradition will find useful Marvin Lazerson, “Revisionism and American Educational History,” Harvard Educational Review 43 (Spring 1973): 269–283; Ravitch, Diane The Revionists Revised: A Critique of the Radical Attack on the Schools (New York: Basic Books, 1978); and Feinberg, Walter et al., Revisionists Respond to Ravitch (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Education, 1980).Google Scholar

91 Cohen, David K. “Immigrants and the Schools,“ Review of Educational Research 40 (February 1970: 13–28; Olneck, Michael R. and Lazerson, Marvin F. “The School Achievement of Immigrant Children, 1900–1930,“ History of Education Quarterly 14 (Winter 1974): 453–482; Perlmann, Joel Ethnic Differences: Schooling and Social Structure Among the Irish, Italians, Jews and Blacks in an American City, 1880–1935 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Seller, Maxine Schwartz “Education,“ Pt. IV of Immigrant Women, rev. 2d ed. (Albany: State University Press, 1994); and Seller, Maxine Schwartz “The Education of the Immigrant Woman, 1900–1935,“ Journal of Urban History 4 (1978): 307–330.Google Scholar

92 A comprehensive work including all of these groups is not available. Useful, but now dated, is Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1980) and the more recent selections in James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks, eds., Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education (New York: Macmillan Publishing 1995).Google Scholar

93 Spring, Joel The American School, 1642–1996, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997). For a virulent attack on traditional interpretations of educational history see Colin Greer, The Great School Legend: A Revisionist Interpretation of American Public Education (New York: Basic Books, 1972).Google Scholar

94 Anderson, James The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).Google Scholar

95 Wollenberg, Charles All Deliberate Speed: School Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools: 1855–1915 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); and Weinberg, Meyer A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

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97 The itemized list of articles found between 1976 and 1999 in the History of Education Quarterly (some concerning Latin America, not Latinos) is, in chronological order: Roderic A. Camp, “University Environment and Socialization: The Case of Mexican Politicians” (Fall 1980); Miguel, Guadalupe San Jr., “The Struggle Against Separate and Unequal Schools: Middle Class Mexican Americans and the Desegregation Campaign in Texas, 1929–1957“ (Fall 1983); Cooney, Jerry W. “Repression to Reform: Education in the Republic of Paraguay, 1811–1850“ (Winter 1983); Ueda, Reed “ School Policy and Immigrant Cultures,“ Essay Review, (Summer 1984); “Education and Politics, Politics and Education: Mexico in the Twentieth Century,” Essay Review, (Spring/Summer 1985); Mabry, Donald J. “Twentieth Century Mexican Education: A Review,“ Essay Review, (Spring/Summer 1985); Kantor, Harvey “Choosing a Vocation: The Origins and Transformation of Vocational Guidance in California, 1910–1930“ (Fall 1986); Miguel, Guadalupe San Jr., “Status of Historiography of Chicano Education: A Preliminary Analysis” (Winter 1986); Raftery, Judith R. “Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922–1932“ (Spring 1988); Yohn, Susan M. “An Education in the Validity of Pluralism: The Meeting Between Presbyterian Mission Teachers and Hispanic Catholics in New Mexico, 1870–1912“ (Fall 1991).Google Scholar

98 This date is chosen to continue, uninterrupted, the historiographical treatment begun in Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr. “Status of the Historiography of Chicano Education,” 523–536.Google Scholar

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119 Ritch, in Reports of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1874 p. 498.Google Scholar

120 This article is restricted to works on Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Philippines, although obtained from Spanish control, is considered an Asian population. See the excellent article by Judith Raftery on U.S. involvement in the Philippines, “Textbook Wars: Governor-General James Francis Smith and the Protestant-Catholic Conflict in Public Education in the Philippines, 1904–1907,” History of Education Quarterly 38 (Summer 1998): 143–164.Google Scholar

121 See Navarro, Jose-Manuel Creating Tropical Yankees: The ‘Spiritual Conquest’ of Puerto Rico, 1898–1908 (Ph.D. diss. University of Chicago, 1995); and Rodríguez-Fraticelli, Carlos Education, Politics and Imperialism: The Reorganization of the Cuban Public Elementary School System During the First American Occupation, 1899–1902. (Ph.D. diss. University of California, San Diego, 1984), esp. Chapter VIII.Google Scholar

122 Clark, Victor S. “Report to General John Eaton, Director of Public Instruction,“ San Juan, Puerto Rico, March 14, 1899 in Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1899–1900, Vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1901), 224.Google Scholar

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127 Korrol, Virginia Sánchez From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948. Google Scholar

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131 In Friedel's The Splendid Little War, op cit, Former Confederate General Wheeler is reported to have been asked when he arrived for duty in 1898 how it felt to “wear the blue again.” A West Point graduate, Wheeler replied, “I feel as though I had been away on a three weeks’ furlough and had but just come back to my own colors.” p.100.Google Scholar

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133 “Regulations for the Public Schools of the Island of Cuba, June 30, 1900,” in Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1899–1900, Vol. 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), 1643–1647.Google Scholar

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138 Homel, Michael Down from Equality: Black Chicagoans and the Public Schools, 1920–1941 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984).Google Scholar

139 Analysis in this section is restricted to the authors’ published books. Each of these authors has presented condensed or interpretive versions of this research in journal articles and anthologies. See, for example, the chapters by Menchaca, San Miguel, and Gonzalez in José F. Moreno, ed., The Elusive Quest for Equality: 150 Years of Chicano/Chicana Education (Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review, 1999); Miguel, San and Valencia, Richard R. “From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood: The Educational Plight and Struggle of Mexican Americans in the Southwest,“ Harvard Educational Review 68 (Fall 1998): 353–412; and chapters in Darder, Antonia et al., eds. Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader (New York: Routledge Press, 1997).Google Scholar

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142 Gonzalez, Chicano Education, 157. See also the discussion of intelligence testing in Judith Raftery, Land of Fair Promise: Politics and Reform in Los Angeles Schools, 1885–1941 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

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145 Cecelski, David Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black schools in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Walker, Vanessa Siddle Their Highest Potential: An African-American School Community in the Segregated South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).Google Scholar

146 Miguel, San Brown, Not White, p.21.Google Scholar

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150 Key cases from these decades include Independent School District vs. Salvatierra, 1930/31 (Texas); Alvarez v. Lemon Grove, 1930 (California); Méndez et al v. Westminister School District, 1947 (California); and Delgado v. Bastrop Independent School District, 1948 (Texas). See Victoria-Maria MacDonald and Scott Beck, “Educational History in Black and Brown: Paths of Divergence and Convergence, 1900–1990,” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the History of Education Society, San Antonio, Texas, October 2000).Google Scholar

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152 Donato, Rubén “Hispano Education and the Implications of Autonomy: Four School Systems in Southern Colorado, 1920–1963,“ Harvard Educational Review 69 (Summer 1999: 117–149.Google Scholar

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155 Pozzetta, Mormino and The Immigrant World of Ybor City; Stepick, Portes and City on the Edge; and Sánchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community. Google Scholar

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158 Korrol, Virginia Sánchez “Toward Bilingual Education: Puerto Rican Women Teachers in New York City Schools, 1947–1967,“ in Ortiz, Altagracia, ed. Puerto Rican Women and Work: Bridges in Transnational Labor (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), 82–104.Google Scholar

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161 Ibid, 245.Google Scholar

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164 Padilla, Felix M. Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985).Google Scholar

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166 Olson, Olson and Cuban Americans: From Trauma to Triumph, 61; and María Cristina García Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 13. The earliest study documenting educational levels of the first wave (to 1962) of Cubans utilized a survey instrument and interviews with refugees registered with the Cuban Refugee Emergency Center. In that study researchers found that while only 4 percent of the refugees had less than a fourth grade education, 52 percent of adults in the 1953 Cuban census possessed less than a fourth grade education. Additionally, 23.5 percent of the refugees had between a 12th grade education and three years of college compared to 3 percent of adult Cubans in 1953. See Table 2.2 “Educational Comparison of Cuban Adults and Refugees,” in Richard F. Fagen, Richard A. Brody, and Thomas J. O'Leary, Cubans in Exile: Disaffection and the Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 19.Google Scholar

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168 Examples of state documents include Florida's Division of Child Welfare, “Cuban Refugee Children Program Correspondence, 1961–1968,” “Cuban refugee assistance program administrative files, 1962–1972” (Florida State Archives and Library, Tallahassee, Florida) which include the dilemma of placing Peter Pan children in schools and families. Peter Pan was the name given to the hundreds of Cuban children sent to Florida without their families. For a detailed discussion see Victor Andres Triay, Fleeing Castro: Operation Pedro Pan and the Cuban Children's Program (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998). Other examples of state-level documents include E.L. Whigham, The Cuban refugee in the public schools of Dade County, Florida (Miami, FL: Dept. of Administrative Research, 1970). At the federal level, the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare administered the Cuban Refugee Program and holds key documents relating to education. Two major universities in Miami possess important archival collections: The Cuban Exile Archives at the University of Miami and the Cuban Exile History Archives at Florida International University.Google Scholar

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177 Kanellos, Nicolas and Claudio Esteva-Fabregat, general editors, have published several volumes of The Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1994) and are credited with establishing the Recovering the U.S. Hispanic Literary Heritage project at the University of Houston. Education has not yet merited a separate volume in the Handbook but is partially included in the “Sociology” volume edited by Félix Padilla. Sol Cohen included two entries concerning Hispanic education in Vol. 2 of Education in the United States: A Documentary History (New York: Random House, 1974), 1020–1022.Google Scholar