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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 09 December 2021
This article explores the conflict between US public and private higher educational institutions by tracing the long struggle for a public university in Boston between 1890 and 1980. This history reveals how the competitive relationship between public and private institutions was central to the formation of each sector, while also complicating a clear dichotomy between the two. Educational innovations such as state scholarships, teacher-training initiatives, university extension courses, and junior colleges are also recast in this story as strategies to limit, rather than expand, the public sector. Finally, this history should prompt a reinterpretation of the current neoliberal moment. Rather than view contemporary budget cuts and public-private partnerships as novel historical departures of the late twentieth century, they appear in this Massachusetts story as a return to a political landscape long hostile to public higher education.
1 Christine Ogren describes persistent silos in higher education research between institutional types in “Sites, Students, Scholarship, and Structures: The Historiography of American Higher Education in the Post-Revisionist Era,” in Rethinking the History of American Education, ed. William J. Reese and John L. Rury (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 196.
2 Geiger, Roger L., The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 91–92, 281, 315–16Google Scholar; Thelin, John R., A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 103–7Google Scholar. As Geiger suggests, what he terms “multipurpose colleges” would be an apt description of many of the new “state universities”: Roger L. Geiger, “The Era of Multipurpose Colleges in American Higher Education, 1850–1890,” in The American College in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Roger L. Geiger (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2000), 128.
3 Thelin, A History of American Higher Education, 105, 140–41.
4 1948 House Bill 2050. Final Report of the Special Commission Established to Investigate and Study Certain Problems of Education in the Commonwealth, April 1, 1948 (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1948), 18–19.
5 David Riesman and Christopher Jencks, “The Viability of the American College,” in The American College: A Psychological and Social Interpretation of the Higher Learning, ed. Nevitt Sanford and Joseph Adelson (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962), 135.
6 Other studies have noted the role of private institutions in limiting Massachusetts and northeastern public higher education, although this article is among the first to detail this struggle from the nineteenth to the late twentieth century. Freeland, Richard M., Academia's Golden Age: Universities in Massachusetts, 1945–1970 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; David F. Labaree, A Perfect Mess: The Unlikely Ascendancy of American Higher Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 122–26; Steven G. Brint and Jerome Karabel, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 143.
7 Recent histories whose focus integrates higher education into American political development usefully encompass both public and private sectors, but conflict between these institutional types is not an explicit focus. See Christopher P. Loss, Between Citizens and the State: The Politics of American Higher Education in the 20th Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012) and Mark R. Nemec, Ivory Towers and Nationalist Minds: Universities, Leadership, and the Development of the American State (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006). A notable exception is Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, which, while focused on the post-WWII period, offers a useful model of a competitive institutional ecology that I draw on and extend back into the nineteenth century. The relationship between public and private institutions has also been explored in recent works on academies and parochial schools, including Mark Boonshoft, Aristocratic Education and the Making of the American Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); and Gross, Robert N., Public vs. Private: The Early History of School Choice in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018)Google Scholar.
8 The “quasi-public” nature of early colleges and universities has been well documented: John S. Whitehead, The Separation of College and State; Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Yale, 1776–1876 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973); Jurgen Herbst, From Crisis to Crisis: American College Government, 1636–1819 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Labaree, A Perfect Mess, 109–40.
9 Labaree, A Perfect Mess, 129.
10 Rupert Wilkinson, Aiding Students, Buying Students: Financial Aid in America (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005), 68–88; James W. Fraser, Preparing America's Teachers: A History (New York: Teachers College Press, 2007), 134–51; Joseph F. Kett, The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America, 1750–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 182–204, 223–56; Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream.
11 Brint and Karabel acknowledge that early support for junior colleges among leaders of four-year institutions stemmed from their desire to stave off competition and structure a differentiated educational hierarchy, although the private/public fault line is not central to their analysis. Their case study of Massachusetts public junior (or community) colleges begins in the late 1950s and is largely presented as a reflection of newfound support for public higher education in the state, whereas this article locates its origins in Massachusetts decades earlier as a means of limiting public expenditure. Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 23–28, 139–203.
12 My analysis here fits the framework of Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, ed., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (N.J: Princeton University Press, 1989).
13 Much recent literature on the privatization and corporatization of the university dates these trends to the 1970s: Christopher Newfield, The Great Mistake: How We Wrecked Public Universities and How We Can Fix Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016); Ellen Schrecker, The Lost Soul of Higher Education: Corporatization, the Assault on Academic Freedom, and the End of the American University (New York: The New Press, 2013); Derek Bok, Universities in the Marketplace: The Commercialization of Higher Education (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); Gaye Tuchman, Wannabe U: Inside the Corporate University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
14 Geiger, The History of American Higher Education, 1.
15 Remarks at a Hearing before the Joint Committee of Education (Cambridge, MA: Metcalf & Co., 1848), 24.
16 For discussion of the relationship between state-level government and corporate bodies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, see Oscar Handlin and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774–1861 (New York: New York University Press, 1947), 87–92; Peter Dobkin Hall, The Organization of American Culture, 1700–1900: Private Institutions, Elites, and the Origins of American Nationality (New York: NYU Press, 1984), 95–125; Jonathan Chausovsky, “State Regulation of Corporations in the Late Nineteenth Century: A Critique of the New Jersey Thesis,” Studies in American Political Development 21, no. 1 (Spring 2007), 30–65. For discussion of the wider role of private associations in the extension of national state power in the US, see Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977); Brian Balogh, A Government out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth-Century America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Brian Balogh, The Associational State: American Governance in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); Elisabeth S. Clemens, Civic Gifts: Voluntarism and the Making of the American Nation-State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020).
17 Debates in the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, 1917–1918, Volume 1 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1919), 64; Commonwealth of Massachusetts, “House No. 92. Report of the Joint Standing Committee on Education,” Documents Printed by Order of the House of Representatives during the Session of the General Court, 1849 (Boston, 1849), 30–31.
18 1865 MA Act, chap. 173, An Act In Relation To The Board Of Overseers Of Harvard College (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1865), 24–25, Archives of the State Library of Massachusetts, archives.lib.state.ma.us; Geiger, The History of American Higher Education, 93; Whitehead, The Separation of College and State, 191–206.
19 Hall, The Organization of American Culture, 1700–1900, 112.
20 Herbert B. Adams, “The State and Higher Education,” National Educational Association, Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1889), 267–68.
21 “House No. 92. Report of the Joint Standing Committee on Education,” 1, 12.
22 Harold Whiting Cary, The University of Massachusetts; a History of One Hundred Years (Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1962), 2, 18; Whitehead, The Separation of College and State, 185.
23 Debates, 1917–1918, 63; Cary, University of Massachusetts, 52–69; 63rd Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College: Part 1, (Boston: Department of Education, 1926), 5–6.
24 1861 MA Act, chap. 183, An Act To Incorporate The Massachusetts Institute Of Technology, And To Grant Aid To Said Institute And To The Boston Society Of Natural History (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1861), 492–93; Geiger, The History of American Higher Education, 308.
25 1863 MA Act, chap. 186, An Act In Addition To The Act To Incorporate The Massachusetts Institute Of Technology (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1861), 497.
26 Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 152–56; Whitehead, Separation of College, 232–34.
27 Labaree, A Perfect Mess, 109–10. When, exactly, the dichotomy between public and private universities was established is a long-standing debate among legal and educational historians. The argument that college corporations were in fact private and should not be subject to political control was central to the 1819 case Dartmouth College v. Woodward, which helped establish the legal sanctity of the corporate charter as contract, and the basis of some historians’ claims that the distinction between “public” and “private” was solidified by the early nineteenth century. Historians such as John Whitehead have argued that this interpretation of the Dartmouth case is anachronistic, and the public/private distinction was not understood as such until the late nineteenth century. I am less interested in resolving this chronological debate and more interested in exploring the continued ways that private institutions received public benefits, developed public partnerships, and exerted outsized influence on local politics and public policy. See Whitehead, John S. and Herbst, Jurgen, “How to Think about the Dartmouth College Case,” History of Education Quarterly 26, no. 3 (1986), 333CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thomas, George, “Rethinking the Dartmouth College Case in American Political Development: Constituting Public and Private Educational Institutions,” Studies in American Political Development 29, no. 1 (April 2015), 23–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
28 Hall, The Organization of American Culture, 1700–1900, 113; Clemens, Civic Gifts, 82–111.
29 “State University,” Boston Globe, MA (hereafter as BG), Jan. 8, 1909, 8.
30 “For Students,” BG, Feb. 27, 1903, 2.
31 Catalogue of the Boston Normal School, 1906 (Boston: Municipal Printing Office, 1907), 10.
32 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 1709.
33 Appendix, in Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1899 (Boston: Municipal Printing Office, 1899), 47–49.
34 Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 48; “Lowell Will Head Harvard,” BG, Jan. 14, 1909, 2.
35 Proceedings of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1904 (Boston: Municipal Printing Office, 1904), 291; “Mrs Duff's Rap,” BG, Nov. 12, 1902, 4; Kaufman, Polly Welts, “Julia Harrington Duff: An Irish Woman Confronts the Boston Power Structure, 1900–1905,” Historical Journal of Massachusetts 18, no. 2 (1990), 113–37Google Scholar.
36 Arthur G. Powell, The Uncertain Profession: Harvard and the Search for Educational Authority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 31–33.
37 Ris, Ethan W., “The Origins of Systemic Reform in American Higher Education, 1895–1920,” Teachers College Record 120, no. 10 (2018), 42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John B. Clark et al., SUNY at Sixty: The Promise of the State University of New York (New York: SUNY Press, 2010), xviii.
38 “Mrs. Duff's Ire,” BG, March 26, 1902, 1; Proceedings of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1902 (Boston: Rockwell & Churchill, 1902), 115–26.
39 Proceedings 1902, 120–26.
40 Annual Report of the Superintendent 1903 (Boston: CPD, 1903), 98; Annual Report of the Superintendent 1908 (Boston: E. W. Doyle, 1908), 90–102; Powell, Uncertain Profession, 22, 36–38, 57; Cristina Viviana Groeger, The Education Trap: Schools and the Remaking of Inequality in Boston (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2021), 186–93.
41 “The Interests of Labor,” Boston Herald, July 30, 1888, 2.
42 Groeger, The Education Trap, 111–15.
43 Stephen H. Norwood, “The Student as Strikebreaker: College Youth and the Crisis of Masculinity in the Early Twentieth Century,” Journal of Social History 28, no. 2 (December 1994), 331–49.
44 “Trade Schools” BG, April 15, 1905, 3.
45 “All in Favor,” BG, March 12, 1895, 7.
46 Sydney C. Van Nort, The City College of New York (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2007), 13, 18; Register of the College of the City of New York (New York, 1867), 11.
47 “All in Favor,” BG, March 12, 1895, 7.
48 “All in Favor.”
49 “Massachusetts College,” Journal of Education 71, no. 7 (Feb. 1910), 178.
50 “Four Years of Study at $138,” BG, March 1, 1910, 6; “Why Does the Commonwealth Need Another College?,” BG, March 13, 1910, 46.
51 R. L. B., “The Massachusetts College,” Journal of Education 69, no. 16 (April 1909), 433.
52 “Hearings at State House,” BG, Feb. 26, 1909, 7.
53 “Massachusetts College” BG, March 14, 1910, 10.
54 “Four Years of Study at $138” 6; Annual Report of the Department of Education 1929, Part 1 (Commonwealth of Massachusetts), 7; R. L. B., “The Massachusetts College,” 433.
55 1911 House Bill 590, Resolve To Provide For The Appointment Of An Unpaid Commission On Higher And Supplementary Public Education (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, House of Representatives, 1911); 1914 House Bill 603, Resolve To Provide For An Investigation Of The Proper Means To Pursue In Establishing A Free State University, (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, House of Representatives, 1914); 1914 House Bill 1271, Resolve Relative To The Founding Of A State University (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, House of Representatives, 1914); Report of the Board of Education Relative to the Establishment of a State University, 1915 (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1915), 4; 1921 Senate Bill 357, Resolve To Provide For An Investigation Relative To Opportunities And Methods For Higher Education In The Commonwealth (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Senate, 1921); Thirteenth Census of the United States, Population, 1910, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 858–61.
56 Report of the Board of Education [. . .] on Providing Higher and Supplementary Education, January 1912, House No. 1647, 6–22.
57 Report of the Board of Education, 1912, 20.
58 “Tells of New Harvard Plan,” BG, June 29, 1911, 1.
59 “Governor for Scholarships,” BG, Oct. 21, 1911, 2; Debates, 1917–1918, 82.
60 Report of the Board of Education, 1912, 21.
61 Annual Report of the Superintendent 1919 (Boston: Printing Department, 1919), 74–78.
62 Annual Report of the Board of Education 1912 (hereafter as ARBE) (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1912), 244; Report of the Board of Education, 1912, 1–23; ARBE 1916 (Boston, Wright & Potter, 1916), 55–56.
63 “Plans Cooperation,” BG, May 26, 1914, 5.
64 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1891–1892, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1892), 751–52.
65 George Zook, Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, House No. 1700, 14–15; ARBE 1917 (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1917), 169–70.
66 ARBE 1917, 170–72.
67 “Politics and Politicians,” BG, Feb. 6, 1916, 25.
68 “University Extension Classes Announced,” BG, Jan 1, 1922, 13; 1915 MA Act, chap. 294, An Act To Establish A Department Of University Extension And To Provide For Correspondence Courses Of Education (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1915), 353–54; ARBE 1916, 55–57; ARBE 1917, 192.
69 “Extension Plan Fills Bill,” BG, May 14, 1916, 20.
70 “Attacks Board of Education,” BG, Aug. 26, 1915, 2.
71 “State University Urgently Needed,” BG, Aug. 12, 1915, 10.
72 Nicholas Lemann, Transaction Man: The Rise of the Deal and the Decline of the American Dream (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019), 23.
73 “Attacks Board of Education,” BG, 2; Debates, 1917–1918, 82.
74 “Favors More Practical College Requirements,” BG, March 16, 1918, 6.
75 “Labor Men Urge Bill,” BG, Feb. 16, 1916, 3; “Favor Investigation,” BG, March 11, 1921, 3; “Labor Continues Fight for State University,” BG, Dec. 24, 1921, 14.
76 Groeger, The Education Trap, 195–98.
77 “Urges Value of Shop Training,” BG, Oct. 30, 1915, 9.
78 “Urges Need for State University,” BG, Jan. 16, 1923, 5.
79 ARBE, 1917, 190–92; “Plan Extensive Campaign of ‘Americanization,’” BG, Oct. 28, 1918, 12.
80 Frank Thompson, Schooling of the Immigrant (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1920), 13, 360–71.
81 Annual Report of the Superintendent 1919, 28.
82 Debates, 1917–1918, 63.
83 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1891–1892, 686; Biennial Survey of Education 1918–1920 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1923), 519; Groeger, The Education Trap, 139–249.
84 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 15.
85 “Junior Colleges in Country,” BG, April 4, 1924, 4A; Report, 1923, 13.
86 “What About College?,” BG, March 12, 1921, 8.
87 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 62, 302.
88 Harold S. Wechsler, The Qualified Student: A History of Selective College Admission in America (New York: Wiley, 1977).
89 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 71–74.
90 Jerome Karabel, The Chosen, 21–23, 50; Report, 1923, 75.
91 Marcia Graham Synnott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900–1970 (New York: Routledge, 2017) 58–110.
92 “Says Colleges Not Bound to Educate All,” BG, July 7, 1922, 1.
93 “Rabbi Levi Urges State University,” BG, Nov. 13, 1922, 7; See also “Speakers Favor State University,” BG, Feb. 2, 1923, 13.
94 “Bryan Speaks to Teachers,” BG, Oct. 29, 1921, 9.
95 “Says Colleges Not Bound to Educate All,” BG, July 7, 1922, 1.
96 “Thompson Urges a State University,” BG, Oct. 18, 1921, 13.
97 “Urges Need for State University,” BG, Jan. 16, 1923, 5.
98 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 63, 66.
99 “Favor Investigation,” BG, March 11, 1921, 3; “State University Plan Is Opposed,” BG, Jan. 13, 1924, 17.
100 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 13–20, 262–79: “Favors Junior College System,” BG, Jan. 12, 1924, 16A.
101 Annual Report of the Superintendent 1922 (Boston: Printing Department, 1922), 17–19; “Historical Note,” Boston State College Collection, 1852–2007, Archives and Special Collections, UMass Boston, Boston, MA.
102 “Votes for a City Junior College,” BG, Jan. 27, 1925, 13; “Supporters Heard on Junior Colleges,” BG, March 11, 1925, 15.
103 “Junior Colleges Taking Hold,” BG, Sept. 2, 1928, A60.
104 “Lasell and Bradford,” BG, Feb. 14, 1932, 8; “Portia Junior College,” BG, Oct. 3, 1934, 21; Ronald Chester, Unequal Access: Women Lawyers in a Changing America (South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey, 1985), 9.
105 Biennial Survey of Education, 1938–1942, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1947), 122.
106 Report of the Commissioner 1880 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1882), 682; Report of the Commissioner 1900, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1902), 1724; Biennial Survey of Education 1918–1920, 390–91; Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 307; “Hard Times Bring Greatest Rush,” BG, October 5, 1930, 56; 63rd Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 5–6, 18.
107 “Many Students Want Massachusetts ‘Aggie,’” BG, Jan. 6, 1929, B4; “New Hampshire College,” BG, Sept. 29, 1929, B18; “MAC Reluctant to Change Name,” BG, March 13, 1928, 14; Cary, University of Massachusetts, 155.
108 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 14.
109 Cary, University of Massachusetts, 148, 158.
110 Biennial Survey of Education, 1932–1934 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1937), 123, 141.
111 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 301, 315–18.
112 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 71–74, 92, 317, 340–42.
113 Census of Population 1950, Vol. 2, Part 21 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1952), 107–11.
114 “The University of Massachusetts,” BG, June 18, 1964, 20; “UMass Takes on ‘Ivy’ Look,” BG, May 19, 1963, A7; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 300–305.
115 Report of the Commission [. . .] for Technical and Higher Education in the Commonwealth, 1923, 307; 64th Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College: Part 1(Boston: Department of Education, 1927), 24.; “State College Raises Tuition,” BG, Jan. 20, 1933, 5.
116 “Community Colleges,” BG, April 2, 1948, 17; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 301.
117 “Reardon Seeks Cooperation,” BG, April 2, 1938, 4; 1932 MA Act, chap. 127, An Act Changing The Designation Of State Normal Schools To State Teachers Colleges, (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1932), 96–101.
118 “Judge Rules Tuition Fees to Teachers Colleges Illegal,” BG, Nov. 11, 1943, 11; “State College Girl Must Pay Tuition,” BG, Sept. 16, 1944, 7.
119 1948 MA Act, chap. 620, An Act Relative To The Establishment Of Community Colleges By The Department Of Education (Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1948), 688–90; “What Junior College Does for Student,” BG, Nov. 13, 1955, 30A.
120 “Massachusetts Called Worst State,” BG, July 25, 1957, 32; “$43 Million Bond Issue Asked,” BG, July 2, 1958, 7.
121 “State Opens First Two-Year Public College,” BG, Sept. 18, 1960, 55.
122 “The Educational Wealth,” BG, May 7, 1964, 19; “Community College Grads,” BG, April 7, 1963, A7
123 “Community College Grads,” BG, April 7, 1963, A7; “The Educational Wealth,” BG, May 7, 1964, 19.
124 “One Easy Way,” BG, Sept. 3, 1958, 11; Proceedings of the School Committee 1952 (Boston: Printing Department, 1952), 49, 68, 99, 398.
125 “Bill Would Change Names,” BG, Feb. 9, 1960, 14.
126 “Boston State Aims High,” BG, Sept. 1, 1963, 60.
127 “The New Colleges,” BG, Jan. 29, 1950, 6A.
128 Kilgore, Kathleen, Transformations: A History of Boston University (Boston: Boston University, 1991), 216–18, 273Google Scholar.
129 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 35–36, 102–3, 118, 235–69.
130 Dan Waldorf, “Northeastern University: A Private University Serving the Urban Proletariat,” in The University and the City: Eight Cases of Involvement, ed. George Nash (New York: McGraw Hill, 1973).
131 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 239–41, 262–67.
132 “UMass Takes on ‘Ivy’ Look,” BG, May 19, 1963, A_7; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 102, 311–28.
133 “Why Shortchange the State Colleges?,” BG, May 20, 1963, 8; “Time State Colleges Got a Break,” BG, July 1, 1963, 8.
134 “Votes for a City Junior College,” BG, Jan. 27, 1925, 13; “Powers: Boston State Has Commuting Future.” BG, June 10, 1963, 23; “Boston State Aims High,” BG, Sept. 1, 1963, 60.
135 “Boston State Aims High,” BG, Sept. 1, 1963, 60; “Mixed View Greet Hub UMass Plan,” BG, May 28, 1964, 5; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 305, 328.
136 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 268, 328.; “UMass in Greater Boston Triggers Debate over Site,” BG, May 24, 1964, A7.
137 “Mixed Views Greet Hub UMass Plan, BG, May 28, 1964, 5.
138 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 317.
139 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 317–19.
140 1964 MA Act, chap. 562, An Act Providing For The Establishment Of University Of Massachusetts Facilities In Or In The Vicinity Of The City Of Boston (Boston, Secretary of the Commonwealth, 1964), 428.
141 “1,200 Freshman Start Classes,” BG, Sept. 15, 1965, 12.
142 Michael Feldberg, UMASS Boston at 50: A Fiftieth-Anniversary History of the University of Massachusetts Boston (Boston: UMass Press, 2015), 9, 15.
143 “Pupils, Staff Protesting UMass Site,” BG, Oct. 11, 1968, 1; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 329.
144 “College for All,” BG, Oct. 3, 1956, 20; Elizabeth Tandy Shermer, Indentured Students: How Government-Guaranteed Loans Left Generations Drowning in College Debt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2021), 159.
145 “Panel Urges State Aid,” BG, March 28, 1954, C3.
146 “College for All,” BG, Oct. 3, 1956, 20.
147 “Sargent Budget,” BG, Feb. 24, 1974, A94; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 338–42.
148 “State Budget For Colleges,” BG, Jan. 21, 1974, 1; “More than Budget Cuts,” BG, March 20, 1977, 7; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 348–51, 397.
149 “State Budget for Colleges,” BG, Jan. 21, 1974, 1.
150 Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 349, 400.
151 “Tuition Increase Expected at UMass,” BG, May 1, 1979, 18.
152 Jennifer M. Nations, “How Austerity Politics Led to Tuition Charges at the University of California and City University of New York,” History of Education Quarterly 61, no. 3 (2021), 1–24; John R. Thelin, “‘Free College’ in Historical Perspective,” History News Network, February 16, 2020, https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/174324; “N.E. College Cost-Rise” BG, March 9, 1980, 25.
153 “UMass, Boston State Students,” BG, Aug. 23, 1981, 29.
154 “New Boston State President,” BG, May 14, 1971, 54; “Is It Time for UMass to Merge?,” BG, Jan. 30, 1975, 22; “Boston State-UMass Merger Official,” BG, July 15, 1981, 13.
155 “Merger of Colleges Opposed,” BG, Nov. 21, 1975, 3; “State Colleges Insulted,” BG, Dec. 16 1975, 22.
156 “Boston State-UMass Merger Official,” BG, July 15, 1981, 13; “Regents Vote May Cost 387 Their Jobs,” BG, Aug. 22, 1981, 1.
157 “Boston State College Gets Reprieve,” BG, Sept. 4, 1981, 16; “Regents Postpone Boston State Layoffs,” BG, Nov. 1, 1981, 46.
158 “Larger UMass-Boston,” BG, Feb. 7, 1982, 27; “Tuition Will Go Up 17%,” BG, March 10, 1982, 1.
159 Krause, Steven D. and Lowe, Charles, Invasion of the MOOCs: The Promises and Perils of Massive Open Online Courses (Anderson, SC: Parlor Press, 2014)Google Scholar.
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