1 On the growing importance of basketball by the interwar era, see Lynd, Robert S. and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown: A Study of Contemporary American Culture (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1929). On the importance of football at American high schools by the turn of the century, see Rader, Benjamin G. American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983), 161–162. Students were far more engaged during these activities than during academic course-work in Csikszmihayli, Mihayli et al., Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 177–198.Google Scholar

2 Mann, Horace “Report for 1848,” in Life and Works of Horace Mann vol. 3 edited by Mann, Mary Peabody (Boston: Fuller, Walker 1867): 668–670, also see 665–666; Cubberly, Ellwood P. Changing Conceptions of Education (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909): 15–16; idem., Public Education in the United States: A Study and Interpretation of American Educational History (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934); Cremin, Lawrence The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876–1957 (New York: Knopf, 1961), ix. The works cited in this essay often included features of more than one school of thought; however, highlighting prominent continuities of thought allows us to make sense of the debate. Jurgen Herbst has recently pointed out, in the pages of this journal, that the progressive historical argument from Cubberly forward equated progress and liberation with state control and bureaucratic centralization of schooling. See Herbst, “Nineteenth-Century Schools between Community and State: The Cases of Prussia and the United States,” History of Education Quarterly 42 (Fall 2002): 317–318. One of Mann's central claims in his “Report of 1848” was that individual human “intelligence” (meaning knowledge and skill) creates economic growth, and that education can increase “intelligence.” On “human capital,” see Spring, Joel “Education and Human Capital” chapter 8 in The American School, 1642–1990, 2^nd ed. (New York: Longman, 1990); Coleman, James S. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital,” American Journal of Sociology 94 Supplement (1988): S95–S120; Goldin, Claudia and Katz, Lawrence F. “Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910–1940,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29 (Spring 1999): 683–713.Google Scholar

3 For examples of the long-running literature on inequality in American society see Riis, Jacob How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: C. Scribner's sons, 1901); Harlan, Louis R. Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States, 1901–1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1958); Kozol, Jonathan Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools (New York: Crown Publishing, 1991); Angus, David and Mirel, Jeffrey The Failed Promise of the American High School, 1890–1995 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999).Google Scholar

4 Carnoy, Martin Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: David McKay, 1974): 18; Modell, John and Alexander, J. Trent “High School in Transition: Community, School, and Peer Group in Abilene, Kansas, 1939,” History of Education Quarterly 37 (Spring 1997): 23. Comacchio, Cynthia “Inventing the Extracurriculum: High School Culture in Interwar Ontario,” Ontario History XCIII (Spring 2001), 49. Miller, Patrick B. “To ‘Bring the Race along Rapidly,’ Sport, Student Culture, and Educational Mission at Historically Black Colleges during the Interwar Years,” History of Education Quarterly 35 (Summer 1995): 111–133. There was always been a spectrum of interpretation within works that deploy the idea of social control. For example, David Tyack's claimed that comprehensive schooling was instituted by “an interlocking directorate of urban elites” to minimize the conflicts of corporate capitalism by sorting children into vocationally determined tracks, “Americanize” youths to middle-class norms, and legitimate professional authority. In the writings of Tyack, Krug, Edward and Spring, Joel this search for order through mass schooling was a project of control that also brought positive good. Others during these years, such as Edward Krug, Ivan Illich, Joel Spring, David Tyack, Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis more harshly criticized mass schooling. See Krug, Edward Shaping of the American High School (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964 and 1971): vol. 1, pp. 391 and vol. 2, pp. 279–282; Illich, Ivan DeSchooling Society (New York: Harper Row, 1971); Spring, Joel Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972); Tyack, David The One-Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974): 111–148; Bowies, Samuel and Gintis, Herbert Schooling in Capitalist America, Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (New York: Basic Books, 1976).Google Scholar

5 For mid-century sociological criticism see Keniston, Kenneth The Uncommitted: Alienated Youth in American Society (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1965). Pyscho-social criticism of modern youth (e.g. Waller, Willard Riesman, David Goodman, Paul and Keniston, Kenneth) helped framed later historical interpretations. See Lasch, Christopher Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York: Basic Books, 1977); idem., The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: Norton, W.W. Kett 1978); Joseph Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1790–Present (New York, 1977); Graebner, William “Outlawing Teenage Populism: The Campaign against Secret Societies in the American High School, 1900–1960,” Journal of American History 74 (September 1987): 433. Also see Graebner's “The ‘Containment’ of Juvenile Delinquency: Social Engineering and American Youth Culture in the Postwar Era,” American Studies 27 (1986): 81–97. On sexual repression see William Graebner, “Eating Together: The Sexual Politics of the School Lunchroom, 1890–1930,” Prospects 26 (2001): 337–360.Google Scholar

6 “Towers of the weak” is the title of chapter eight of Linda Gordon's Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence (New York Viking, 1988). Also see Moran, Jeffrey P. “‘Modernism Gone Mad': Sex Education Comes to Chicago, 1913” Journal of American History 83 (September 1996): 481–513; Ueda, Reed “Second-Generation Civic America: Education, Citizenship, and the Children of Immigrants,” in Patterns of Social Capital: Stability and Change in Historical Perspective edited by Rotberg, Robert I. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001): 273–194; Ueda, Reed Avenues to Adulthood: the Origins of the High School and Social Mobility in an American suburb (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 120; Fass, Paula Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New Oxford University Press, 1989), 71–76–77, 111; Gutowski, Thomas W. “Student Initiative and the Origins of the High School Extracurruiculum: Chicago, 1880–1915,” History of Education Quarterly 28 (Spring 1988), 49–72. Also see Wrigley, Julia Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900–1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982); Reese, William J. Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements During the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986). For an especially subtle blending of rational actor theory with the ideas of school-choice as contested-terrain see, DeVault, Ileen A. Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work in Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990). Reed Ueda uses similar resource maximization arguments effectively in Ueda, Avenues to Adulthood, 109–112.Google Scholar

7 My approach follows Joan W. Scott's criticism of Linda Gordon's Boston study of child-saving and the implications of Scott's work for the contested terrain approach more generally. See the exchange between Scott, Joan W. and Gordon, Linda in Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 15 (Summer 1990): 848–860. On the connection between liberal reform and internal discipline for mass structures see Foucault, Michel Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979): 170–228.Google Scholar

8 On Great Britain and Europe see the Frank Cass Publishers series, Sport in Global Society edited by Mangan, J.A. Harp, Stephen L. Learning to be Loyal: Primary Schooling as Nation Building in Alsace and Lorraine, 1840–1940 (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); Holmes, Larry E. Stalin's School: Moscow's Model School No. 25, 1931–1937 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999). If Pierre Bourdieu's analysis of nationalism is correct, we can take the invisibility of it, its assumption in the ways we see and measure things, to be an indicator of its power. Bourdieu, Pierre “Rethinking the State: Genesis and Structure of the Bureaucratic Field,” in State/Culture: State Formation after the Cultural Turn edited by George Steinmetz (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999): 53–75. The literature on American sports, nationalism, and modernity is advancing impressively, but most of the studies do not focus on schooling. See Pope, Steven W. Patriotic Games: Sporting Traditions in the American Imagination, 1876–1926 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Pope, Steven W. ed., The New American Sports History: Recent Approaches and Perspectives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997).Google Scholar

9 Gulick, Luther A Philosophy of Play (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1920), 254–261. Rudy, Willis Schools in an Age of Mass Culture: An Exploration of Selected Themes in the History of Twentieth-Century American Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1965): 107; Cavallo, Dominick Muscles and Morals: Organized Playground and Urban Reform, 1880–1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), and Spring, Joel “Mass Culture and School Sports” History of Education Quarterly 14 (Winter 1974): 483–499. Also see Curtis, Henry S. The Play Movement and Its Significance (New York: Macmillan, 1917); Dewey, John The School and Society and the Child and the Curriculum introduced by Jackson, Philip W. (University of Chicago Press, 1990); National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Cardinal Principals of Secondary Education, U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin no. 35 (Washington D.C., 1918). All student writings were found in the libraries of today's Central Middle School and East Technical High School in Cleveland, Ohio. Schafer, William “A History of Central High School Athletics,” The Central (1905): 74–75. Kett's, Graebner's, Gutowski's, Ueda's, Mirel's studies outline the student-led origins of extra-curriculum for a number of cities. Mirel, Jeffery “From Student Control to Institutional Control of High School Athletics: Three Michigan Cities, 1883–1905,” Journal of Social History 16 (1982): 87. A Carnegie Foundation study conducted in the late 1920s placed the origins of organized school athletics between the years 1886–1906. See Savage, Howard J. et al., American College Athletics (New York: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1929).Google Scholar

10 On masculinity, self-discipline, self-control, and sports in late nineteenth-century middle-class culture see Gorn, Elliott J. The Monty Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986): 140–202. For the cult of strenuousity see Lears, T.J. Jackson No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and American Culture, 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981): 91–92. Central High School Monthly [hereafter cited as CHSM] v. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 13–14. CHSM v. 5, no. 4 (January 1904): 25–27; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 28–29; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 28–29; CHSM-Commencement Number v. 1, no. 4 (June 1900): 36–38; CHSM v. 4, no. 1 (October 1902): 2; Stilwell, Charles J. “The New Building,” The Central (1905): 70–73. For more details on challenges to the inter-scholastic athletic associations see Mario George Gerhardt, “A Study of State High School Associations and Challenges to Their Authority to Control Interscholastic Athletic Participation” (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1986).Google Scholar

11 See The Central (1905): 61–62, 66–68. Reese, William J. Origins of the American High School (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995): 129–131.Google Scholar

12 On the name “Belfry Owl” see The Central (1905): 22. “A Gift for Central High” CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 26.Google Scholar

13 On the progressive approach toward moral education see McClellan, B. Edward Schools and the Shaping of Character: Moral Education in America, 1607–Present (Eric Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education and the Social Development Center, Indiana University, 1992): 51–76. The Central (1905): 61–62, 66–68; “Senior Class,” CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 24–25; The Central (1905): 78Google Scholar

14 Although East Technical had a more occupational focus, it was not a lesser high school for working-class youths during its early years. Judging from the yearbooks, photographs, and student writings in the three decades prior to 1920, both schools were populated by white youths carrying a notable proportion of Germanic names coming from households with employed fathers in business, the professions, and the skilled trades. In his memoir, Langston Hughes, who was a former student at Central High School, emphasized that just prior to 1920 a significant number of Catholic and Jewish youths of European-born parents had made their way into the school. Langston Hughes, The Big Sea: An Autobiography (New York: Hill and Wang, 1940): 30. Yearbooks suggest that this trend did not redefine the student population at these schools until well into the twenties. The Scarab v. 2, no. 1 (May 1911): 1; “Athletics,” The Scarab v. 1, no. 1 (June 1909): 16–17; CHSM v. 1, no. 4 (June 1900): 32; CHSM v. 5, no. 3 (December 1903): 15; CHSM v. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 21–24; CHSM v. 1, no. 2 (April 1900): 22–23.Google Scholar

15 CHSM v. 5, no. 1 (October 1903): 14–16; CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 15–19; CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 19–21; CHSM v. 5, no. 3 (December 1903): 17–20; CHSM v. 5, no. 4 (January 1904): 15–19. Hanson, Mary Ellen Go! Fight! Win! Cheerleading in American Culture (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1995); 19–20.Google Scholar

16 Krug sets the growth in the last decade of the nineteenth century from two to five hundred thousand students and from 2,526 to 6,005 high schools. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880–1920 (1964): 169. The United States Census offers figures doubling by decade until 1930, with nearly this rate during the thirties, and then a plateau in the forties. CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 26–27. See “Athletic Association Notes,” CHSM v. 1, n. 3 (May 1900): 24; CHSM v. 2, no. 1 (October 1900): 16. Modell and Alexander, “High School in Transition,” 12. CHSM v. 2, no. 1 (October 1900): 16; The June Bug (1914): 103; The June Bug (1911): 194.Google Scholar

17 Quote is from Gutowski, “Student Initiative,” 55. CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 24–25; CHSM v. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 16–20.Google Scholar

18 The June Bug (1911): 189. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, U.S. high schools and colleges introduced this term first in the early twentieth century. Whether they originated with them, they are certainly indicative of this type of schooling. Yearbooks from the period generally have a class poem or history that emphasized the development of students by class promotion. A poem written by an unknown student repeated the theme in CHSM, Commencement Number (May 1916): 52–54. “TO THE SENIORS; What were you first?; An infant meet; What were you once?; A flatlet meek; What were you next?; A sophomore smart; What were you then?; A junior sharp; What were you last?; A senior tall; What will you be?; Nothing at all“ Also see CHSM (June 1909): 22–23; The June Bug (1913): 11–67.Google Scholar

19 The subordination of the Psi Omega took three full years. See the Central Monthly -Commencement Number v. 1, no. 4 (June 1900): 17–19, 20–31. Class of ‘04 — Central High School: Its Book, 26–41; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 23; CHSM v. 5, no. 7 (April 1904): 16.Google Scholar

20 On the gradual feminization of cheerleading see Hanson, Go! Fight! Win!; Class of ‘04 — Central High School: Its Book, 43–44; CHSM v. 1, no. 3 (May 1900): 17. CHSM v. 5, no. 1 (October 1903): 14–16. CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 22. Brown, Ruby P. “Central High School Yells,” The Central (1905): 76–77.Google Scholar

21 The participation and leadership figures are based on a sample of about 1,700 seniors at both schools between 1904 and 1945. See Patrick J. Ryan, “Shaping Modern Youth” (1998): 296–306.Google Scholar

22 CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 21; The Central (1905): 79; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 29; DeWitt, Sutherland “A Significant Score,” CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 7–9.Google Scholar

23 See note 22. For other studies that show a similar gender division of class leadership see Ueda, Avenues to Adulthood, 121; Fass, Outside In, 73–111.Google Scholar

24 The importance of female domesticity and self-made manhood to the advancement of capitalism has been well-established. See Ryan, Mary P. Cradle of the Middle-Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1860 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Boydston, Jeanne Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and Ideology in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Boris, Eileen Home to Work: Motherhood and the politics of industrial homework in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Stanley, Amy Dru From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of Slave Emancipation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Smith, Dorothy E. “A Word about Athletics for Girls,” CHSM—Girls’ Number, vol. 5, no. 8 (May 1904): 10–11.Google Scholar

25 Comacchio, “Inventing the Extracurriculum,” 42. Fitch, Christina “The Girls’ Gym Work,” The June Bug (1913): 116–117; Baldwin, Martha and Heidtman, Helen “Girls’ Athletics,” CHSM, Commencement Number (1915): 31, 66. On the gender dynamics of basketball for young women during the era, see Pamela Dean, “‘Dear Sisters’ and ‘Hated Rivals': Athletics and Gender at Two New South Women's Colleges, 1893–1920,” Journal of Sports History 24 (Fall 1997): 341–357.Google Scholar

26 See Gleason, Mona “Disciplining the Student Body: Schooling and the Construction of Canadian Children's Bodies, 1930–1960,” History of Education Quarterly 41 (Summer 2001): 189–215. As quoted in Hansen, Go! Fight! Win, 20. The Central (1906), no pagation; CHSM v. 10 (June 1909): 88–89. Nathan, George Jean “A Game of Football” CHSM — Football Number, vol. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 6.Google Scholar

27 As quoted in Comacchio, “Inventing the Extracurriculum,” 38. McGrath, Francis “Girls’ Athletics“ CHSM (June 1917): 47; Ekers, Norwood “A Question of Morals” The June Bug (1913): 145–148. For more examples of sex and schooling see Ryan, Patrick J. “Shaping Modern Youth,” 277–281; Moran, “Modernism Gone Mad”; Graebner, “Eating Together.”Google Scholar

28 CHSM v. 5, no. 4 (January 1904): 15–19; CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 25; The Central High School Annual (1914): 104–109; The Scarab v. 1, no. 5 (November 1909): 14. The military characterizations of sports by high school students echoed larger themes in the national news media. Steven Pope has called the 1908 Olympics a “nationalist orgy.” Pope, Steven W. “Negotiating the ‘Folk Highway’ of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture, and American Identity, 1870–1940,” Journal of Social History 27 (Winter 1993): 329; Pope, Steven W. “An Army of Athletes: Playing Fields, Battlefields, and the American Military Sporting Experience, 1890–1920,” Journal of Military History 59 (July 1995): 435–456.Google Scholar

29 The Scarab v. 1, no. 6 (January 1910): 27. The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 4 (October 25, 1917): 1; The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 9 (November 29, 1917): 1.Google Scholar

30 James, William “The Moral Equivalent of War,” [1906] in American Issues, edited by Curti, Merle Thorp, Willard and Baker, Carlos (Chicago: Lippincott, 1960): 108–125; Freud, Sigmund “Thoughts for the Times on War and Death,” [1915] translated by Mayne, E. Colburn in The Major Works of Sigmund edited by Hutchins, Robert Maynard (Chicago: William Benton, 1952): 293–295.Google Scholar

31 CHSM, June (June 1917): 26–27; CHSM, June (June 1917): 20; The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 27 (April 25, 1918): 1–2.Google Scholar

32 The Weekly Scarab: v. 1, no. 3 (October 18, 1917): 1; v. 1, no. 4 (October 25, 1917): 2; v. 1, no. 2 (October 11, 1917): 2; v. 1, no. 1 (October 4, 1917): 1; v. 1, no. 22 (March 21, 1918): 1; v. 1, no. 23 (March 28, 1918): 1.Google Scholar

33 CHSM, June (June 1917): 44.Google Scholar

34 The Weekly Scarab: v. 1, no. 15 (January 31, 1918): 1, 4; v. 1, no. 24 (April 4, 1918): 1.Google Scholar

35 Troyer v. State, Ohio State Reports, decided June 1918.Google Scholar

36 Tyack, The One Best System, 234. The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 27 (April 25, 1918): 1, 3. Wilcox, Clifford “World War I and the Attack on Professors of German at the University of Michigan,” History of Education Quarterly 33 (Spring 1993): 59–84. Asato, Noriko “Mandating Americanization: Japanese Language and the Federal Survey of Education in Hawai'i, 1916–1920,” History of Education Quarterly 43 (Spring 2003): 11–12.Google Scholar

37 CHSM, June (June 1918): 42, 44, 46; CHSM, June (1917): 26–27; CHSM, June (1918): 15–41; The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 25 (April 11, 1918): 4.Google Scholar

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39 For more on the transformation to modern see Modell, John Into One's Own: From Youth to Adulthood In the United States, 1920–1975 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Kett, Rites of Passage; Handlin, Oscar and Handlin, Mary Flug Facing Life: Youth and Family Life in American History (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971). The Weekly Scarab v. 1, no. 3 (October 18, 1917): 1.Google Scholar

40 Kett, Rites of Passage, 183–187. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 193–194. Dewey, The School and Society and the Child and the Curriculum, 199–207. Also see Rudy, Schools in an Age of Mass Culture, 106–142; Spring, “Mass Culture and School Sports,” 483–499.Google Scholar

41 For Ueda, Reed school spirit was the analog to town “boosterism.” The spirit aroused through student activities imbued an individualistic peer-centered youth culture with a sense of community, and high schooling was an instrument for “increasing [immigrant] inclusion in politics and other spheres of public life.” Paula Fass called extracurriculum a way to build a sense of “national community” while retaining distinctive ethnic-racial identities. Extracurricular activities were another way to fulfill the “old common-school ideal” of social harmony. Ueda, Avenues to Adulthood, 120–139; Ueda, “Second Generation Civic Education,” 274; Fass, Outside In, 73–111. For a summary of the attack on ward schools see Nasaw, David Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States (New York, 1979): 80–158. The seminal works on school centralization are by Katz, Michael B. The Irony of Early School Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968); idem., Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools (New York: Praeger, 1971). On the contemporary difficulties of returning democratic localism to schools within the context of urban districts see Ryan, Patrick J. “Can't Let Go: The Call for Community and the Resurrection of Bureaucracy in Cleveland Public Schools,” Education Next: A Journal of Opinion and Research 1 (Winter 2001): 36–41.Google Scholar

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