¹ “Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference,” Proceedings (Salisbury, Rhodesia: 1930): 13, National Archives of Zimbabwe file S RH 179.Google Scholar

² The terminology “American Methodist Episcopal Church” reflects its usage in colonial documents where it became commonplace to distinguish these missions from those of the British Wesleyan Methodist Church. The Methodist Episcopal Church eventually became the Methodist Church and is today known as the United Methodist Church.Google Scholar

³ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1944), 27.Google Scholar

⁴ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1945), 95.Google Scholar

⁵ Native Education Commission, Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Matter of Native Education in All Its Bearing in the Colony of Southern Rhodesia (Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printer, 1925), 9.Google Scholar

⁶ Native Affairs Department, “Minutes of the 1939 Joint Conference of Inspectors and Representatives of the Missionary Conference,” 16–17, National Archives of Zimbabwe file CNC S235/492.Google Scholar

⁷ Farquhar, J.H. to Sells, E.L., April 27, 1939, Old Mutare Archives file 145. This report also mentions one evangelist who “although he knows good methods pay, prefers a large area cultivated in the traditional manner.”Google Scholar

⁸ Native Affairs Department, “Minutes of the 1939 Joint Conference of Inspectors and Representatives of the Missionary Conference,” 16–17, National Archives of Zimbabwe file CNC S235/492. This situation persisted, causing one official to comment years later that “agriculture work at kraal schools is still the most unpopular of subjects. This state of affairs, I fear, can be laid at the door of many of the teachers. Agricultural field work is termed basa [work] by most of the teachers and pupils ….” NC Mrewa to CNC, Annual Report (1945), National Archives of Zimbabwe file S1563.Google Scholar

⁹ Sisimayi, E., interview by author, audio recording, Nhedziwa, February 25, 1998.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Methodist Church (Umtali District), “Instructions and Rules for Teachers,” 1945, Old Mutare Archives file 145.Google Scholar

¹¹ Asst. Director of Native Lands to Mission Superintendent (Old Umtali), May 10, 1940, Old Mutare Archives file 145.Google Scholar

¹² Office of the Circuit Inspector (NED), April 2, 1951, National Archives of Zimbabwe file S1012/ED 1–3.Google Scholar

¹³ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1947), 384.Google Scholar

¹⁴ “Report to Interpret the Specific Details of Non-Recurring Askings for Executive Committee Consideration,” October 7, 1954, 3, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance.Google Scholar

¹⁵ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1947), 422.Google Scholar

¹⁶ James, H.I., Missions in Rhodesia under the Methodist Episcopal Church (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1935), 65.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Sells, E.L., On Trek with Christ in Southern Rhodesia (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1936), 43.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Thacker, J.T., “Financing a Mission Program,” presented to Agricultural Field Committee 1947, 10–14, Old Mutare Archives file 145.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Edgington, S.D., “Economic and Social Dimensions of Mission Farms on the Mashonaland Highveld, 1890–1930s” (PhD diss., UCLA, 1996), 192.Google Scholar

²⁰ Zvobgo, C.J.M., A History of Christian Missions in Zimbabwe, 1890–1939 (Harare: Mambo Press, 1996), 171. For several early years, the only way to get students was “to hire them to work at the mission and then teach them for an hour each day in the classroom.”Google Scholar

²¹ Oral Testimony of Reverend Jonah Tarwiwa Chitombo, September 1979, National Archives of Zimbabwe file AOH/61.Google Scholar

²² Oral Testimony of Solomon Chada Machingura, February 1979, National Archives of Zimbabwe file AOH/50.Google Scholar

²³ Chimboza, I. and Chimboza, E., interview by author, audio recording, Arnoldine Mission, March 10, 1998.Google Scholar

²⁴ Sisimayi, interview.Google Scholar

²⁵ Edgington, 265.Google Scholar

²⁶ Sells, 41–43.Google Scholar

²⁷ “Conference Agricultural Survey for Field Committee,” August 1954, 10, Old Mutare Archives file A24.Google Scholar

²⁸ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1948), 66–67.Google Scholar

²⁹ Sells, 41–43.Google Scholar

³⁰ The Methodist Church, Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1953), 156.Google Scholar

³¹ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1942), 236.Google Scholar

³² Roberts, Tudor, “Account of G.A. Roberts Life,” 1972, 2, Old Mutare Archives file 521.Google Scholar

³³ Kanyimo, D., interview by author, audio recording, Murehwa Mission, March 4, 1998.Google Scholar

³⁴ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1943), 287.Google Scholar

³⁵ Makuwatsine, T., interview by author, audio recording, Nyadire Mission, January 30, 1998. He remembered fellow pupils in the 1950s using this money “to pay for their sports gear and their Christmas parties.”Google Scholar

³⁶ Native Affairs Department, “Minutes of the 1939 Joint Conference of Inspectors and Representatives of the Missionary Conference,” 18–19, National Archives of Zimbabwe file CNC S235/492.Google Scholar

³⁷ Kanyimo, interview.Google Scholar

³⁸ “Conference Agricultural Survey,” 10.Google Scholar

³⁹ Ibid., 15. The report on Old Umtali farmlands also concluded that holiday labor supplies were unreliable “because of the fathers’ influence.”Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁴¹ NED Industrial Education Inspector Patterson, P.H. to Kinyon, W., January 23, 1952, Old Mutare Archives file 145.Google Scholar

⁴² Muswe, N., interview by author, audio recording, Uzumba, March 5, 1998.Google Scholar

⁴³ Makuwatsine, interview.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Sisimayi, interview.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1940), 39.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1945), 99.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Maforo, V., interview by author, audio recording, Arnoldine Mission, March 11, 1998. See also Edgington, 280.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1941), 132.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Ibid., 15.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Schmidt, E., Peasants, Traders and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870–1939 (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1992), 122.Google Scholar

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⁵² The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1941), 143.Google Scholar

⁵³ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Edgington, 192:259. He also suggests that despite the work they performed, boarding pupils constantly sought to differentiate themselves from ordinary hired laborers.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Zvobgo, 240.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1943), 297.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ “Conference Agricultural Survey,” 15.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1943), 297.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ Murphree, M.J. to Booth, Bishop N.S., March 14, 1951, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Murphree, M.J. to Umtali Circuit Inspector, February 13, 1951, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance. Remarks Murphree drafted for a meeting with Governor Sir John Kennedy also reveal his position: “In more recent years the Native Education Department of the government has been emphasizing more and more the academic side of education at the expense of training in industrial subjects. At present only ten hours/ week is required for industrial subjects. Some of us who have been in this work for a long time are not at all happy over this trend.” Murphree, M.J., “Supplement to Historical Notes on the Founding of Old Umtali,” February 1951, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance.Google Scholar

⁶² Murphree, M.J. to All Patrons & Friends of Hartzell Training School, March 31, 1951, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance. There is no indication whether a final version of this handwritten draft ever circulated publicly.Google Scholar

⁶³ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Edgington, 355. Nhiwatiwa, John, a student at Old Mutare between 1947 and 1951, remembered student complaints about cowpeas containing weevils. Personal interview, April 16, 1998.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ N'ona, M., interview by author, audio recording, Uzumba, January 30, 1998.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Maforo, interview.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ “Conference Agricultural Survey,” 14.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ “Report to Interpret the Specific Details of Non-Recurring Askings for Executive Committee Consideration,” October 7, 1954, 2, Old Mutare Archives file African Advance.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Ibid., 2.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ibid., 1.Google Scholar

⁷¹ For an analysis of student activism in the interwar period, see Summers, C., Colonial Lessons: Africans’ Education in Southern Rhodesia, 1918–1940 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002), 3–45.Google Scholar

⁷² Roberts, G.A. to Springer, Bishop J., May 2, 1942, United Methodist Church Archives file 1001-4-2:11. Government sources predicted 1942 would be “remembered by native peoples as a nzara [hunger] year … failure of crops was not so complete even during Mvemve“ [a year of famine about 10 years prior to white occupation when women were reduced to eating skin aprons and hundreds died]. Report of Secretary for Native Affairs, CNC, and Director of Native Development (Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printer, 1942), 53.Google Scholar

⁷³ Njambi, S., interview by author, audio recording, Arnoldine Mission, March 11, 1998.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1947), 367.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Ibid., 382.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ NC Mrewa to CNC, Annual Report (1947), National Archives of Zimbabwe file S1563.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1946), 247. While Murphree directed this toward a growing class of mission teachers and graduates, he was certainly aware of its relevance to the issue of race in colonial Zimbabwe.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Umtali, NC to CNC, Annual Report (1948), National Archives of Zimbabwe file S1563. The following year, the CNC concluded that “the youth turned out by the schools today has little or no interest in local affairs and despises manual labor of any kind.” Secretary for Native Affairs, Chief Native Commissioner, and Director of Native Agriculture, Annual Report (Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printer, 1949).Google Scholar

⁸¹ The Methodist Episcopal Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1936), 44.Google Scholar

⁸² Jangano, R., interview by author, audio recording, Nyakatsapa Mission, April 23, 1998. Although he could not provide exact dates, Jangano was probably at Nyadiri between 1925 and 1935.Google Scholar

⁸³ Makunike, I., interview by author, audio recording, Nyakatsapa Mission, February 7, 1998. He returned to Nyakatsapa from Bulawayo in 1939.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Njambi, interview.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ N'ona, interview.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Makuwatsine, interview.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ The Methodist Church, Official Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1939), 318.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ The Methodist Church, Journal of the Rhodesia Annual Conference (Old Umtali: Rhodesia Mission Press, 1959), 382.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Education Commission, Report of the Southern Rhodesia Education Commission (Salisbury, Rhodesia: Government Printer, 1962), 22.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Ibid.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Ibid., 108.Google Scholar

⁹² Ibid., 228.Google Scholar

⁹³ Ibid., 24.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Makoni, NC to CNC, Annual Report (1940), 294, National Archives of Zimbabwe file S1563/1940.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Edgington, 353.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Makunike, E.C., interview by author, audio recording, Highlands, March 17, 1998.Google Scholar