No CrossRef data available.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 January 2017
In the Fall of 1962, high school seniors Leon Zachery and Deitra Caul submitted applications for the Philadelphia City Scholarship competition. Both students excelled in high school, but both Zachery, whose mother worked in childcare, and Caul, whose mother did clerical work for the Presbyterian Life Magazine, feared that without outside assistance they would not be able to afford college tuition. In the letter supporting his application, Zachery's biology teacher at West Philadelphia high school described him as a “serious young man” who “knows a great deal about various subjects that is not required study… [and] seems to have become well-read from his intensive study.” “He is an exceptional boy [who] I feel should go to college or it would be a dreadful waste,” the teacher concluded. Caul's guidance counselor, William Cannady, offered a similar appraisal. Cannady, one of the first black high school teachers in Philadelphia, noted that Deitra Caul graduated first in her class at Gratz high school and “participated extensively in extra-curricular activities without any loss in academic status.” “It would be tragic,” Cannady wrote, “if Miss Caul had to forgo college because of a lack of finances.” With stellar academic records and demonstrated financial need, Zachery and Caul were among the forty-nine City Scholarship winners in 1962–1963, and the only two African-American students so selected.
1 Bessie Abramowitz, letter to City Scholarship Committee, [n.d., ca. 1962], Philadelphia Committee on Higher Educational Opportunity (PCHEO) files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Zachery, Philadelphia City Archives (PCA); Cannady, William, letter to City Scholarship Committee, [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5142, folder History of Education Quarterly 60-13-Caul, PCA; Zachery, Leon, “City Scholarship Application,” [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13- Zachery, PCA; Caul, Deitra, “City Scholarship Application,” [n.d., ca. 1962], PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Caul, PCA; John Clough, memo on City Scholarship Program, July 19, 1963, PCHEO files, box A-288, folder 60-13-Correspondence with members, PCA; Clough, letter to Mayor James Tate, 9 August 1963, PCHEO files, box A-5141, folder 60-13-Mayor's office correspondence, PCA.Google Scholar
2 Medsker, Leland, The Junior College: Progress and Prospect (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 278; Eldersveld, Martin, “Pennsylvania Opens the Door” in Junior Colleges: 50 States/50 Years, ed. Yarrington, Roger (Washington, DC: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1969), 151.Google Scholar
3 Bezilla, Michael, Penn State: An Illustrated History (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1985), 263–69, 320.Google Scholar
4 Ibid.Google Scholar
5 Dougherty, Kevin, “The Politics of Community College Expansion: Beyond the Functionalist and Class-Reproduction Explanations,” American Journal of Education 96, no. 3 (May 1988): 351–93, 364.Google Scholar
6 Pedersen, Robert, “Value Conflict on the Community College Campus: An Examination of its Historical Origins,” in Managing Community and Junior Colleges: Perspectives/or the Next Century, ed. Hoffman, Allan and Julius, Daniel (Washington, DC: The College and University Personnel Association, 1994), 19–25.Google Scholar
7 On the importance of “prime movers” in initiating community colleges, see Fretwell, Elbert, Founding Public Junior Colleges: Local Initiative in Six Communities (New York: Columbia University Teachers College, 1954), 128–34.Google Scholar
8 Douglass, John Aubrey, The Conditions for Admission: Access, Equity, and the Social Contract of Public Universities (Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 2007).Google Scholar
9 Mattingly, Paul, Anderson, James, Church, Robert, Curran, Emmett, and Tobias, Marilyn, “Renegotiating the Historical Narrative: The Case of American Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 44, no. 4 (Winter 2004): 577–96, 585.Google Scholar
10 Among historical studies of community colleges, see George Baker, III, Dudziak, Judy, and Tyler, Peggy, ed., A Handbook on the Community College in America: Its History, Mission, and Management (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 1–108; Beach, J. M., Gateway to Opportunity?: A History of the Community College in the United States (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2011); Bishop, Charles, The Community's College: A History of Johnson County Community College, 1969–1999 (Pittsburg, KS: Johnson Country Community College/Pittcraft Printing, 2002); Brint, Steven and Karabel, Jerome, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Cohen, Arthur and Brawer, Florence, The American Community College, Fifth Edition (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 1–42; Dougherty, Kevin, The Contradictory College: The Conflicting Origins, Impacts, and Futures of the Community College (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); Frye, John, The Vision of the Public Junior College, 1900–1940: Professional Goals and Popular Aspirations (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); Hutcheson, Philo, “Reconsidering the Community College,” History of Education Quarterly 39, no. 3 (Autumn, 1999): 307–20; Keith, Bruce, “The Context of Educational Opportunity: States and the Legislative Organization of Community College Systems,” American Journal of Education 105, no. 1 (November 1996): 67–101; Meier, Kenneth, “The Community College Mission: History and Theory, 1930–2000” (PhD dissertation, University of Arizona, 2008); Nevarez, Carlos and Wood, J. Luke, Community College Leadership and Administration: Theory Practice, and Change (New York: Peter Lang, 2010), 23–51; Pedersen, “Value Conflict on the Community College Campus”; Tillery, Dale and Deegan, William, “The Evolution of Two-Year Colleges through Four Generations,” in Renewing the American Community College, ed. Deegan, and Tillery, (Sab Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985), 3–33, and Whitson, Kathleen Krebbs, Bill Jason Priest: Community College Pioneer (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2004).Google Scholar
11 Among the unpublished dissertations that offer case studies of community colleges, see Joseph Barwick, “The Impact of Historical Decisions on the Success of Central Piedmont Community College: A Case Study” (PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1991); Sue Blair, “The Emergence and Development of the Community/Junior College in Texas” (PhD dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1991); Burgraff, Donna, “A Social/Cultural Perspective of the Development of Southern West Virginia Community College” (PhD dissertation, West Virginia University, 1995); Byrne, Janet, “An Historical Study of Roane State Community College,” (EdD dissertation, Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University, 1989); Crowl, Vaughn, “Educating Rural Maryland: A Historical and Anecdotal Record of Hagerstown Junior College, 1946–1987” (PhD dissertation, American University, 1987); Crudder, Michael, “A History of Presidential Leadership at Glendale Community College, 1963 to 1996” (PhD dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1997); Gunn, Edward, “Reach for Tomorrow: A History of Rockingham Community College” (PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2000); Hesse, Maria, “The History of Chandler-Gilbert Community College, 1985–2005” (PhD dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2006); Hinsdale, Rosejean, “Maricopa County Community College District: First Decade of Growth of a Multicollege District, 1962–1972” (PhD dissertation, Arizona State University, 1973); Jackson, Elaine, “The Evolving Roles of Angelina Community College as Perceived by its Past and Present Leaders” (PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1992); Kutras, Christopher, “The Organizational Evolution of Shasta Community College, 1948–1992” (PhD dissertation, University of San Francisco, 1995); Manor, Michael, “The Development of North Central Michigan College during the First Quarter Century, 1958–1983” (PhD dissertation, Wayne State University, 1989); Morris, Kevin, “A History of the South Carolina Technical Education System, 1961–1991” (PhD dissertation, Clemson University, 1997); O'Hara, Adina, “From University Centers to Community Colleges: The Evolution of a Distinctive System of Higher Education in Kentucky” (PhD dissertation, University of Kentucky, 2005); Rocklin, Fern, “Serving the Unserved and Underserved: Western Iowa Tech Community College, the First Thirty-Three Years, 1966–1999 (PhD dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1999); Schulman, Diane, “A Community College and Its Contending Communities: Erie Community College the First Twenty-Five Years, 1946–1971” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1975); Smith, Dustin, “A Century of Change: The History of Two-Year Education in the State of Alabama, 1866–1963,” (EdD dissertation, University of Alabama, 2012); Smith, Janet, “The History of Tennessee Community Colleges: 1957–1978” (PhD dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1983); Smolich, Robert, “An Analysis of Influenced Affecting the Origin and Early Development of Three Mid-Western Public Junior Colleges—Joliet, Goshen, and Crane” (PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1967); Spears, Gary, “A History of Northwest Mississippi Community College, 1926–1990” (PhD dissertation, University of Mississippi, 1991); Tordenti, Laura, “A History of Green River Community College from Its Founding through 1980” (PhD dissertation, Seattle University, 1996); Weaver, Benjamin, “Bringing the Colleges to the Communities: An Historical Analysis of the Siting of the State University of New York Community Colleges” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 2008); and Wiedmann, Arietta, “Colorado Community College Movements, 1960s and 1970s: The Experiences of Women Leaders” (PhD dissertation, Colorado State University, 1998).Google Scholar
12 Hillway, Tyrus, The American Two-Year College (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958), ix.Google Scholar
13 Among critics who argue that community colleges reproduce social and economic inequalities, see Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream; Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America (New York: Basic, 1976); Clark, Burton, The Open Door College: A Case Study (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960); Karabel, Jerome, “Community Colleges and Social Stratification,” Harvard Educational Review 42 (Winter 1972): 521–62; Karabel, Jerome, “Protecting the Portals: Class and the Community College,” Social Policy 5, no. 1 (May-June 1974): 12–18; Nasaw, David, Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); Pincus, Fred, “Tracking in Community Colleges,” The Insurgent Sociologist 4 (Spring 1974): 17–36; Pincus, “The False Promises of Community Colleges: Class Conflict and Vocational Education,” Harvard Educational Review 50 (August 1980): 332–61.Google Scholar
14 Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 3–19.Google Scholar
15 In the last half of their important book on community colleges, Steven Brint and Jerome Karabel focus on an extended case study of the community college movement in Massachusetts. Like Pennsylvania, Massachusetts has a history or private colleges and universities. Unlike Pennsylvania, the legislation to establish a system of community colleges in Massachusetts was introduced by the Governor and passed on the first attempt. As such, this history of the origins of the community colleges in Massachusetts is covered in just two pages. Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 144–45.Google Scholar
16 Pedersen, “Value Conflict on the Community College Campus,” 20. See also, Pedersen, “The Origins and Development of the Early Public Junior College: 1900–1940” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2000).Google Scholar
17 Frye, The Vision of the Public Junior College, 74.Google Scholar
18 Botts, Talma, “A History of Temple College: 1965–1998” (PhD dissertation, Baylor University, 2001); Delaney, George, “The Development of the Washington Community College Act of 1967” (PhD dissertation, University of Washington, 1990); Katsinas, Stephen, “George Wallace and the Founding of Alabama's Public Two-Year Colleges,” Journal of Higher Education 65, no. 4 (Jul-Aug. 1994): 447–72; Rivers, Ishwanzya, “Rising from the Bricks: The Historical Development of East St. Louis State Community College, 1969–2004” (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2011); and Vandenberg-Daves, Jodi, “‘A Look at the Total Knowledge of the World': The University of Minnesota, the Land-Grant Tradition, and the Politics of Public Higher Education, 1950–1990,” History of Education 32, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 57–79.Google Scholar
19 On civil rights in Philadelphia, see Countryman, Matthew J., Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); Wolfinger, James, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); and Lisa Levenstein, A Movement without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).Google Scholar
20 Bender, Louis and Shoemaker, Elwood, “The Pennsylvania Community Colleges: Miracles Do Happen,” Junior College Journal 42, no. 1 (August–September 1971): 10–13.Google Scholar
21 Pedersen, “The Origins and Development of the Early Public Junior College: 1900–1940,” 25.Google Scholar
22 Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 23–101.Google Scholar
23 Ibid, 84. On the increasing enrollment in two- and four-year institutions in the postwar era, see Kim, Dongbin and Rury, John, “The Changing Profile of College Access: The Truman Commission and Enrollment Patterns in the Postwar Era,” History of Education Quarterly 47, no. 3 (August 2007): 302–27.Google Scholar
24 Thelin, John, A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2004), 300; Allen Witt et al., America's Community Colleges: The First Century (Washington, DC: Community College Press, 1994), 185.Google Scholar
25 The change in terminology from “branch campuses” to “Commonwealth Campuses” came in 1959 with a reorganization that sought to bring the campuses into closer contact with main campus, by placing the campuses under a central coordinator who reported to the University president. Historian Michael Bezilla notes, “The term ‘Commonwealth Campus’ referred only to those branches whose physical plants met certain criteria, including ownership of the property by the University. Those that rented or leased facilities were still called ‘centers.”’ Bezilla, Penn State, 323–24.Google Scholar
26 The fourteen campuses in 1960 were Allentown, Altoona, Behrend, Berks, DuBois, Hazelton, McKeesport, New Kensington, Mont Alto, Ogontz, Pottsville, Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, and York. Five additional campuses opened later: Beaver, Fayette, and Shenango in 1965; Harrisburg (Capital Campus) in 1966; and Brandywine (formerly Delaware County) in 1967. Bezilla, Penn State, 323–37. For additional information on the history of the Penn State branch campuses, see the websites for the respective campuses and Penn State, “Histories of Some Perm State Campuses Around the Commonwealth,” http://www.psu.edu/ur/topics/history.html.Google Scholar
27 Bezilla, Penn State, 324. For historical enrollment data at Penn State, see Penn State University Budget Office, “Fall Headcount Enrollment: 1859 to Present,” http://www.budget.psu.edu/FactBook/StudentDynamic/HistoricalComparisonOf-Enrollment.aspx?YearCode=2011&FBPlusIndc=N.Google Scholar
28 Halstead's, D. Kent Statewide Planning in Higher Education lists two-year public college student enrollment as only 0.6 percent of total undergraduate enrollment in Pennsylvania in 1960. This figure, however, does not appear to account for the Penn State branch campuses. Using the historical branch campus enrollment data and the historical undergraduate enrollment in the appendices of Halstead's text, I have calculated the two-year public college student enrollment as 2.9 percent of total undergraduate enrollment in Pennsylvania in 1960. Halstead, D. Kent, Statewide Planning in Higher Education (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), 108–9, 313–23, 782–801.Google Scholar
29 Bezilla, Perm State, 325.Google Scholar
30 In addition to the Abington campus, in 1967, the Brandywine campus (formerly named Delaware County) opened in Media, Pennsylvania, eighteen miles west of Center City Philadelphia. Bezilla, Perm State, 333.Google Scholar
31 Cohen and Brawer, The American Community College, 16. Additionally, a 2003–2004 study found that the median distance for two-year college students from their home to the campus was ten miles. Horn, Laura, Nevill, Stephanie, and Griffith, James, Profiles of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education Institutions, 2003–04: With a Special Analysis of Community College Students (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2006), 61.Google Scholar
32 Maurice Fagan interview by Walter Phillips, 6 October 1975, transcript, p. 3–4, Walter Phillips Oral History Collection, Box 2, TUUA.Google Scholar
33 Fagan interview by Phillips, 6.Google Scholar
34 On Maurice Fagan and the Fellowship Commission's antidiscrimination work in the Philadelphia schools, see Delmont, Matthew, The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock ‘n’ Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 68–100.Google Scholar
35 Bonnell, Allen, Community College of Philadelphia: A Chronicle of the Years 1964–1984, 1984, Community College (CC) collection, Community College of Philadelphia Archives (CCPA); Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” May 1951, Fellowship Commission (FC) collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 8, Temple University Urban Archives (TUUA); Logan, Floyd, “Taxes side issue in giving Phila. free city college,” Philadelphia Daily News, 12 January 1949; Fagan, Maurice, “Free college can face competition,” Philadelphia Daily News, 13 January 1949; McDonough, Joseph, “College training should be viewed from new light,” Philadelphia Daily News, 14 January 1949; Fagan, letter to Henry Beerits, 9 June 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, Philadelphia Jewish Archives Center (PJAC).Google Scholar
36 Koos, Leonard, “A Community-College Plan for Pennsylvania,” The School Review 57, no. 4 (April, 1949), 206–7.Google Scholar
37 Obermayer, Leon, letter to Citizens for a Free City College Executive Committee, 16 April 1951, quoted in Bonnell, Community College of Philadelphia, 23.Google Scholar
38 Bonnell, Community College of Philadelphia, 30; Obermayer, letter to Joseph Pollock, 16 October 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, PJAC; Pollack, letter to Obermayer, 17 October 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, PJAC.Google Scholar
39 Pollock, letter to Obermayer, 17 October 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder, 004, PTAC.Google Scholar
40 Philadelphia City Council, “Resolution 446,” September 1955, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC.Google Scholar
41 Fagan, Maurice, letter to Will Maslow, 13 October 1955, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC; “Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Committee on Fair Education Opportunities: Minutes of Meeting of Educators to Plan Future Conference,” 12 April 1955, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 005, PJAC; “Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Planning Committee for Conference of College Representatives,” 12 April 1955, JCRC collection, box 008, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar
42 Fagan, Maurice, “Presentation to City Council's Finance Committee on Resolution 446,” 14 July 1955, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC.Google Scholar
43 During its first three years, the higher educational group was called the Committee on Higher Educational Opportunities in Philadelphia. In 1958, when the group was established as a permanent organization appointed by the mayor, the name was changed to the Philadelphia Commission on Higher Education (PCOHE). For simplicity, I refer to the group by the later name (PCOHE), throughout this section.Google Scholar
44 “Memorandum for David Ullman,” 19 November 1956, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar
45 Fagan, letter to Wilfred Lorry and David Ullman, 27 March 1957, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 007, PJAC.Google Scholar
46 Fagan, “PCHEO Public Meetings, Second Session Transcript,” 25 April 1957, JCRC collection, MSS 115, Sec 1, box 003, folder 006, PJAC.Google Scholar
47 Bond, Horace Mann, “Statement of Philadelphia Branch of the NAACP, on the Subject of Higher Educational Opportunity in Philadelphia,” 15 April 1957, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 17, folder 344, TUUA.Google Scholar
48 Philadelphia Committee on Higher Educational Opportunity, “Higher Education and the Future of Youth in the Greater Philadelphia Area,” December 1957, PCHEO files, box A-300, folder 60–13, PCA; “Press Release: Report of the Committee on Higher Educational Opportunities,” FC collection, Acc 626, box 29, folder 4, TUUA.Google Scholar
49 “Higher Education and the Future of Youth in the Greater Philadelphia Area.” For the survey used to support this claim, see PCHEO, “Education and Vocational Plans Survey,” June 1957, PCHEO files, box A-300, folder 60–13, PCA.Google Scholar
50 Fagan, letter to Lewis Stevens, 28 January 1958, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 012, PJAC.Google Scholar
51 Ottman, Tod, “Forging SUNY in New York's Political Cauldron,” in SUNY at Sixty: The Promise of the State University of New York, ed. Clark, John, Leslie, W. Bruce, and O'Brien, Kenneth (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2010), 17.Google Scholar
52 Bezilla, Penn State, 266.Google Scholar
53 A Master Plan for Higher Education in Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania State Board of Education, 1967).Google Scholar
54 Ibid., 269.Google Scholar
55 “Fellowship Commission, Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 27 October 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar
56 On the Fellowship Commission's community college public relations campaign, see “Junior College in Phila. Urged,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 4 November 1960; “McBride Announces Start of Campaign to Establish Junior College in Philly,” Sons of Italy Times, 7 November 1960; “Fellowship Commission Spurs Move for Junior College in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Dispatch, 13 November 1960; “Drive Is Started to Set Up Community College Here,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 5 April 1961; “Fellowship Conference to Discuss City College,“ Jewish Exponent, 31 March 1961; “Fellowship Commission Sparks Drive for Junior Colleges,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 5 April 1961; “Phila. AFL-CIO Endorses Plan for Junior College Here,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 15 June 1961; Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” November 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 17, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” February 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” April 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; Fagan, letter to Charles Sunstein, 1 February 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 5, TUUA; Fagan, letter to Georges Carousso, 27 July 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUA; Fagan, letter to Edmund Glazer, 17 July 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUAGoogle Scholar
57 “WCAU Radio Programs Relating to Higher Education,” [n.d., ca. October 1960], FC collection, Acc 626, box 29, folder 2, TUUA; “Recorded Radio Program for WCAU,” 1 June 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 16, TUUA; “PCOHE minutes,” 9 March 1960, PCOHE collection, box A-298, folder 60-13-3 “PCHE minutes 1958–1965,” PCA.Google Scholar
58 “Recorded Radio Program for WCAU,” 25 July 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 29, folder 2, TUUA.Google Scholar
59 Burton Clark describes how San Jose's mayor and chamber of commerce spoke of San Jose State College as “‘our state college,”’ and notes that the “existence of the state college in San Jose, not more than three miles from the new junior college, meant both a preemption of a higher call upon community pride.” Clark, The Open Door College, 37–38.Google Scholar
60 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA On the ways in which images of America, specifically representations of civil rights and racial discrimination, emerged as a foreign policy issue in the postwar era, see Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
61 John Clough, Jr., letter to Members of Commission on Higher Education, 11 January 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar
62 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September 1961.Google Scholar
63 On television talk shows in the late 1950s and early 1960s, see Bernard Timberg, Television Talk: A History of the TV Talk Show (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 1–55. On the use of television to model norms of citizenship, see Anna McCarthy, The Citizen Machine (New York: The New Press, 2010). On the Fellowship Commission's earlier civil rights television show, They Shall Be Heard, see Delmont, The Nicest Kids in Town, 50–67.Google Scholar
64 In reading through the local case studies on community colleges listed in footnote nine, I have not found evidence of comparable public relations campaigns on behalf of a community college.Google Scholar
65 Delaney, “The Development of the Washington Community College Act of 1967,” 230.Google Scholar
66 Ibid., 288.Google Scholar
67 Vandenberg-Daves, “‘A Look at the Total Knowledge of the World,”’ 66.Google Scholar
68 Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 356.Google Scholar
69 Fagan, letter to David Ullman, Thomas McBride and William Gray, 20 April 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 15, TUUA. See also, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 29 April 1960, FC collection, Acc 626 box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar
70 Fellowship Commission, “Statement on Higher Education Practices and Opportunities Submitted to the Governor's Commission on Education Task Force on Higher Education,” 2 June 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 36, TUUA.Google Scholar
71 “Indoctrination Course,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 10 July 1960; “Free-Thinking Migrants,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 17 July 1960. For more on the textbook controversy, see chapter one.Google Scholar
72 “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 26 January 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 37, TUUA.Google Scholar
73 Fagan, letter to Jules Cohen, 3 March 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 10, TUUA.Google Scholar
74 On the turn to community organizing and mass protest among many black civil rights advocates in Philadelphia, see Countryman, Matthew, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 48–220.Google Scholar
75 Countryman, Up South, 151.Google Scholar
76 Sugrue, Thomas, Sweet Land Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 294.Google Scholar
77 Fagan interview by Phillips, p. 9.Google Scholar
78 On the colorblind rhetoric of the Philadelphia school board, see Wetter, Allen, “For Every Child: The Story of Integration in the Philadelphia Public Schools,” October 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 24, folder 12, TUUA; and Delmont, The Nicest Kids in Town, 68–125.Google Scholar
79 “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education Minutes,” 28 September 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 37, TUUA; “Fellowship Commission Board of Commissioners Meeting Minutes,” 10 October 1961, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 010, PJAC; Fagan, letter to Charles Sustein, 1 February 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 5, TUUA; Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” June 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar
80 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” February 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 19, TUUA.Google Scholar
81 Fagan, “Joint State Government Commission Task Force on Community Colleges,” 27 September 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 17, TUUA.Google Scholar
82 On the development of California's system of higher education in the 1950s and 1960s, and the national influence of this system, see Douglass, John, The California Idea and American Higher Education, 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 170–325; Lemann, The Big Test, 125–39; Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 86–90.Google Scholar
83 Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 376.Google Scholar
84 Ibid.Google Scholar
85 Conant, Slums and Suburbs, 100.Google Scholar
86 Fagan, letter to William Rafsky, 20 November 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 11, TUUA; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Fact and Action Memorandum,” December 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 11, TUUA.Google Scholar
87 Dilworth, Richardson, letter to Millard Gladfelter, 25 September 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 11, TUUA.Google Scholar
88 Wilcox, William, “Testimony of Greater Philadelphia Movement at Public Hearing on House Bill 1066,” 23 May 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 38, folder 1, TUUA; Batten, Harry, letter to Governor Scranton, 28 March 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 38, folder 1, TUUA. On the concerns of the business community with the community college, see Clough, John, letter to Charles Simpson, 18 March 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 19, TUUA; Gleazer, Edmund, letter to Keeton Arvett, 18 March 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 19, TUUA.Google Scholar
89 On the importance of selling community college programs to business and industry, see Thomas, Charles, “Financing the Public Community College: A Summary of Federal Aid, Corporation Aid, and the Economies of Management as Sources of Revenue,” Junior College Journal 31 (March, 1961), 368.Google Scholar
90 “Board of Commissioners Meeting Notes,” 11 October 1960, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 004, PJAC; “Memorandum for Judge David Ullman,” 11 October 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar
91 Countryman, Up South, 113. On Leon Sullivan and challenges to employment discrimination, see Countryman, Up South, 83–179; Thomas Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” The Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 145–73; Franklin, V.P., “‘The Lion of Zion': Leon H. Sullivan and the Pursuit of Social and Economic Justice,” Journal of African American History 96 (Winter 2011): 39–43; McKee, Guian, The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); and Leon Sullivan, Build Brother, Build (Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969).Google Scholar
92 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” October 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 19, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” December 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 19, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” April 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 20, TUUA; “Nominees OK 2-Yr. College,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, 2 November 1962.Google Scholar
93 The estimated national average for community college tuition in the mid-1960s was $200. Edmund Gleazer, Jr., This Is the Community College (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968), 50; “Highlight Provisions of the Pennsylvania Community College Act of 1963,” 8 October 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 19, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” April 1963.Google Scholar
94 Maurice Fagan interview by Hannah Brody, 15 September 1989, transcript, p. 20, JCRC collection, PJAC. On Louis Stein's support for the Community College of Philadelphia, see also, “Penn Fruit Prexy Warns City College Comm.,” Philadelphia Tribune, 28 January 1964.Google Scholar
95 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” October 1963, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 20, TUUA; “Fellowship Commission Lauds Community Colleges Bill,” Philadelphia Independent, 10 August 1963; “Community College Seen By Sept. ‘64,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 4 August 1963.Google Scholar
96 “James H.J. Tate News Release,” March 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA; Simpson, Charles, letter to James Tate, 30 March 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA; Tate, letter to Simpson, 2 April 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 15, TUUA.Google Scholar
97 “Educator Raps Tate's Rejection of 26 Trustees,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 3 April 1964.Google Scholar
98 “Fellowship Commission Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education,” 25 September 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; “Fellowship Commission Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education,” 18 December 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA.Google Scholar
99 Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” September-October 1965, FC collection, Acc 626, box 54, folder 22, TUUA; Bonnell, Allen, Community College of Philadelphia: A Chronicle of the Years 1964–1984, 1984, Community College (CC) collection, Community College of Philadelphia Archives (CCPA).Google Scholar
100 “Snellenburg Bldg. Site for College,” Philadelphia Tribune, 6 February 1965.Google Scholar
101 Countryman, Up South, 170.Google Scholar
102 Bricklin, Mark, “'Moore's Threats Sank Crippins’ Sam Evans Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, 6 April 1965. See also, Wilder, John Brantley and McCann, Ray, “Rights Groups Pledge Togetherness at NAACP Member Rally Sunday,” 27 April 1965.Google Scholar
103 McCann, Ray, “Mcintosh Only Dissenter in 16–1 Vote Tab,” Philadelphia Tribune, 8 May 1965.Google Scholar
104 “Negro Waste of Education Opportunity Hit,” Philadelphia Tribune, 30 October 1965.Google Scholar
105 Wilder, “Phila. Community College Must Part Girard Estate $750,000 Yearly,” Philadelphia Tribune, 27 April 1968. See also, Wilder “Does Community College Aid Needy?,” Philadelphia Tribune, 23 April 1968.Google Scholar
106 The Community College of Philadelphia began holding classes in the former Philadelphia Mint building in 1973, but continued to lease the Snellenberg space until renovations to the Philadelphia Mint building were completed in 1983. “Community College of Philadelphia, Historical Highlights” http://www.ccp.edu/site/about/historical.php.Google Scholar
107 Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream, 83–84.Google Scholar
108 Cohen, Arthur, “Governmental Policies Affecting Community Colleges: A Historical Perspective,” in Community Colleges: Policy in the Future Context, ed. Townsend, Barbara and Twombly, Susan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), 6. On the development of state plans for community colleges, see Keith, “The Context of Educational Opportunity,” Terrence Tollefson, “The Evolution of State Systems of Community Colleges in the United States,” in A Handbook on the Community College in America ed. Baker III, Dudziak, and Tyler, 74–81.Google Scholar
109 Witt et al., America's Community Colleges, 184; Gleazer, Jr., This Is the Community College, 87. On the importance of urban community colleges, see Brown, Raymond and Muller, Gilbert, ed., Gateways to Democracy: Six Urban Community College Systems (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999) and Richard Richardson, Jr. and Bender, Louis, Fostering Minority Access and Achievement in Higher Education: The Role of Urban Community Colleges and Universities (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987)Google Scholar
110 Dougherty, “The Politics of Community College Expansion,” 375; Charles Monroe, Profile of the Community College (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972), 17; Nevarez and Wood, Community College Leadership and Administration, 40.Google Scholar
111 Bezilla, Penn State, 323–37.Google Scholar
112 Ibid., 337.Google Scholar
113 Bender and Shoemaker, “Miracles Do Happen,” 13.Google Scholar
114 Nevarez and Wood, Community College Leadership and Administration, 40–42.Google Scholar
115 Fellowship Commission, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 24 June 1966, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 41, TUUA; Fellowship Commission, “Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 28 October 1966, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 41, TUUA;Google Scholar
116 Community College of Philadelphia, “Progress and Self-Evaluation Report Prepared for The Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, Middle States Association of College and Secondary Schools, 1 November 1967, CC collection, Acc 378 154 C734s1, CCPA.Google Scholar
117 Educational Equality League, “Testimony Presented to the Council of Higher Education of the State Board of Education of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” 29 January 1965, FL collection, Acc 469, box 5, folder 10, TUUA.Google Scholar
118 “Keep Cost Down on Community College,” Philadelphia Tribune, 11 July 1964.Google Scholar
119 Community College of Philadelphia, “Civitas, A Yearbook.”Google Scholar
120 Fellowship Commission, “Joint Meeting of the Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” 8 July 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; Community College of Philadelphia, “Civitas, A Yearbook,” June 1967 CC collection, Acc A378.748 C734ci, CCPA.Google Scholar
121 School District of Philadelphia, “Comparative Report of College-Bound Graduates 1966–1971 [n.d.],” FC collection, Acc 626, box 25, folder 18, TUUA.Google Scholar
122 Ibid.Google Scholar
123 On the history of residential and education segregation in Philadelphia, see Michael Clapper, “The Constructed World of Postwar Philadelphia Area Schools: Site Selection, Architecture, and the Landscape of Inequality” (PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2008); Countryman, Up South, 223–57; Delmont, Matthew, The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock ‘n’ Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia (Oakland: University of California Press, 2012), 68–125; and Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches, 121–56. On the present-day legacy of these histories, see Logan, John, “Whose Schools Are Failing?,” US2010: Discover America in a New Century (July 2011); and Logan, “Separate and Unequal: The Neighborhood Gap for Blacks, Hispanics and Asians in Metropolitan America,” US2010: Discover America in a New Century (July 2011).Google Scholar
124 Among recent works on the challenge facing public institutions of higher education, see Newfield, Christopher, Unmaking the Public University: The Forty-year Assault on the Middle Class (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Douglass, John, The Conditions for Admission: Access, Equity, and the Social Contract of Public Universities (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Gelber, Scott, The University and the People: Envisioning American Higher Education in an Era of Populist Protest (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011); Lyall, Katherine and Sell, Kathleen, The True Genius of America at Risk: Are We Losing Our Public Universities to De Facto Privatization? (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); John, Edward St. and Parsons, Michael, ed., Public Funding of Higher Education: Changing Contexts and New Rationales (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).Google Scholar