¹ Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College,” Liberal Education 45, no. 2 (May 1959), 205Google Scholar.

² Frank Johnson, “Hofstra Takes Wraps Off Its Speed-Up Plan,” Newsday, Nov. 21, 1958, Nassau edition, 5; and Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College.”

³ Distler, Theodore A., “Report of Executive Director,” Liberal Education 45, no. 1 (March 1959), 127–28Google Scholar; The Fund for the Advancement of Education, “A Report for 1957–1959” (New York: Fund for the Advancement of Education, 1959), 43–44; and Winslow R. Hatch, “The Experimental College” (Washington, DC: US Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 1960), 2.

⁴ This paper examines experimental colleges that were comprehensive undergraduate programs and comprised the entirety of students’ coursework for at least two years. These were created as either stand-alone institutions or independent subcolleges within a larger university.

⁵ Barbara K. Townsend, L. J. Newell, and Michael D. Wiese, “Creating Distinctiveness: Lessons from Uncommon Colleges and Universities” (Washington, DC: George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development, 1992), iv, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED356702.pdf; and Kliewer, Joy Rosenzweig, The Innovative Campus: Nurturing the Distinctive Learning Environment (Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁶ Histories of single institutions are often written by individuals who were personally involved with them, for example, Trow, Katherine, Habits of Mind: The Experimental College Program at Berkeley (Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies Press, University of California, Berkeley, 1998)Google Scholar; McDonald, Bill and O'Neill, Kevin, As Long as You're Havin’ a Good Time: A History of Johnston College, 1969–1979 (Victoria, BC: Trafford Publishing, 2003)Google Scholar; and Prosser, Albert L., Nasson: The Seventy Years (West Kennebunk, ME: Phoenix Publishing, 1993)Google Scholar.

⁷ Levine, Arthur, Why Innovation Fails (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980)Google Scholar; Cardozier, V. R., ed., Important Lessons from Innovative Colleges and Universities (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993)Google Scholar; Newell, L. Jackson et al. , eds., Maverick Colleges: Ten Notable Experiments in American Undergraduate Education (Salt Lake City: University of Utah: Utah Education Policy Center, 1993)Google Scholar; Townsend, , Newell, , and Wiese, , “Creating Distinctiveness”; Grant, Gerald and Riesman, David, The Perpetual Dream: Reform and Experiment in the American College (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978)Google Scholar; and Kliewer, The Innovative Campus.

⁸ This essay draws from several types of sources to capture the breadth of this movement. To understand experimental colleges’ popularity and connections to mainstream educators, I examined professional higher education journals from 1955 to 1980, such as the Association of American Colleges Bulletin (Liberal Education after 1959), AAUP Bulletin, and Daedalus, supplementing this with selected foundation and government reports. I paid particular attention to AAC Annual Meeting notes, including an exhaustive review of the Presidential, Board of Directors, and Liberal Arts Committee's reports. To study the many individual colleges that made up this movement, I drew from online and local library sources. Some institutions had extensive online archives and received substantial newspaper coverage, while for others I had to rely on secondary sources. Finally, to understand the intellectual and social context of the period, I referenced secondary literature.

⁹ Freeland, Richard M., Academia's Golden Age: Universities in Massachusetts, 1945–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 70Google Scholar; Loss, Christopher P., Between Citizens and the State: The Politics of American Higher Education in the 20th Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Geiger, Roger L., Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; and Brint, Steven G. and Karabel, Jerome, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Lowen, Rebecca S., Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)Google Scholar; and Schrecker, Ellen, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

¹¹ Steven Brint, “The Academic Devolution? Movements to Reform Teaching and Learning in US Colleges and Universities, 1985–2010” (Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, Center for Studies in Higher Education, Dec. 2009), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED511962.pdf; and Bisesi, Michael, “Historical Developments in American Undergraduate Education: General Education and the Core Curriculum,” British Journal of Educational Studies 30, no. 2 (June 1, 1982), 199–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Some scholars distinguish between “liberal education” (associated with Robert Hutchins and the Great Books) and “general education” (associated more with John Dewey). My usage of the terms is more general and simply refers to a core set of requirements for developing a shared body of knowledge or mode of thought. This broader definition encompasses the general decline of requirements described above and the variety of curricula developed by experimental colleges. For more on these terms, see Cohen-Cole, Jamie Nace, The Open Mind: Cold War Politics and the Sciences of Human Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 17–20Google Scholar; and Brint, “The Academic Devolution?,” 607–8.

¹² Kevin S. Zayed, “Cooperation Without Consensus: National Discussions and Local Implementation in General Education Reform 1930–1960” (PhD diss., University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 2016); Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 13–34; Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 109–19; and Chase, Alston, “The Rise and Fall of General Education: 1945–1980,” Academic Questions 6, no. 2 (Spring 1993), 21–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Pells, Richard H., The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s, 2nd ed. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Geary, Daniel, “Children of the Lonely Crowd: David Riesman, the Young Radicals, and the Splitting of Liberalism in the 1960s,” Modern Intellectual History 10, no. 3 (Nov. 2013), 603–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind.

¹⁴ Brick, Howard, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1998), 1–3Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 3–14.

¹⁶ Faust, Clarence H., “Rising Enrollments and Effective Use of Faculty Resources,” Association of American Colleges Bulletin 43, no. 2 (May 1957), 257Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Riesman, David, Gusfield, Joseph R., and Gamson, Zelda F., Academic Values and Mass Education: The Early Years of Oakland and Monteith (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), 13Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Scott, David W., “The Transformation of Higher Education in the 1960s: Master Plans, Community Colleges, and Emerging Universities,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 101, no. 2 (Summer 2008), 177–92Google Scholar; and Douglass, John Aubrey, The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Barber, C. L. et al. , The New College Plan: A Proposal for a Major Departure in Higher Education (Amherst, MA: Committee on Four College Cooperation, Fund for the Advancement of Education, 1958), 2Google Scholar.

²⁰ As described retrospectively by Longsworth, Charles R., “A Brave New World: Hampshire College,” in Five Colleges: Five Histories, ed. Story, Ronald E. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 109Google Scholar.

²¹ Despite national acclaim for the proposal, leadership changes at the sponsoring institutions shelved the plan. Hampshire was formally founded in 1965, after a renewed campaign for development. For clarity, I refer to the initial proposal as the New College Plan and the eventual college as Hampshire.

²² Barber et al., The New College Plan, 4.

²³ Distler, “Report of Executive Director,” 1959; and Longsworth, “A Brave New World.”

²⁴ Hamilton, Thomas H. and Varner, Durward B., “Curriculum Michigan State University-Oakland” (Rochester: Michigan State University-Oakland, 1959)Google Scholar; and Riesman, Gusfield, and Gamson, Academic Values and Mass Education, 19–37.

²⁵ Gaff, Jerry G., The Cluster College (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1970), 3Google Scholar.

²⁶ Jeffrey W. Hayes, “A History of the College of Social Studies” (honors thesis, Wesleyan University, 1991); and Potts, David B., Wesleyan University, 1910–1970: Academic Ambition and Middle-Class America (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

²⁷ The Fund for the Advancement of Education, Decade of Experiment: The Fund for the Advancement of Education 1951–61 (New York: Fund for the Advancement of Education, 1961), 91Google Scholar. Faust also served as President of the Ford Foundation's Fund for the Advancement of Education. For simplicity, I refer to both closely related organizations as the Ford Foundation in this essay. For more on the foundations, see Woodring, Paul, Investment in Innovation: An Historical Appraisal of the Fund for the Advancement of Education (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970)Google Scholar; and Thelin, John R., Philanthropy and American Higher Education (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ Fund for the Advancement of Education, “A Report for 1957–1959,” 44.

²⁹ Fund for the Advancement of Education, “A Report for 1957–1959,” 43.

³⁰ Fund for the Advancement of Education, Decade of Experiment, 91–92.

³¹ Riesman, David, “Becoming an Academic Man,” in Authors of Their Own Lives: Intellectual Autobiographies by Twenty American Sociologists, ed. Berger, Bennett M. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

³² Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 220; Hayes, “A History of the College of Social Studies,” 19; Barber et al., The New College Plan, 54; Riesman, Gusfield, and Gamson, Academic Values and Mass Education; and Harris Wofford, “New College at Old Westbury,” in Gaff, The Cluster College, 182.

³³ Hatch, “The Experimental College”; and Distler, “Report of Executive Director,” 1959, 127–29. The AAC Executive Director Reports in 1961 and 1963 also praised experimental colleges.

³⁴ Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 1–37.

³⁵ McGrath, Earl James, “General Education: A Revival,” Liberal Education 45, no. 3 (Oct. 1959), 345–60Google Scholar; Distler, Theodore A., “Report of Executive Director,” Liberal Education 46, no. 1 (March 1960), 131–37Google Scholar; and Gregory, Edgar, “The Specialists and the New Education,” Liberal Education 46, no. 4 (Dec. 1960), 484–88Google Scholar.

³⁶ Hamilton and Varner, “Curriculum Michigan State University-Oakland,” 13.

³⁷ Barber et al., The New College Plan, 5.

³⁸ From Monteith's founding plan, as quoted in Riesman, Gusfield, and Gamson, Academic Values and Mass Education, 44.

³⁹ Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 99; Weigle, Richard D., “Commission on Liberal Education,” Association of American Colleges Bulletin 43, no. 1 (March 1957), 165–66Google Scholar; and Gregory, “The Specialists and the New Education.”

⁴⁰ McGrath, “General Education: A Revival,” 345.

⁴¹ Hatch, “The Experimental College,” 7.

⁴² Hayes, “A History of the College of Social Studies”; and Joy S. Rosenzweig, “The Innovative Colleges and Universities of the 1960s and 1970s: What Keeps the Dreams of Experimentation Alive?,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Albuquerque, NM, Nov. 1997, 13–16, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED415810.pdf.

⁴³ C. Westerman, “Monteith College Archives Collection Papers, 1958–1972,” 2–3, http://reuther.wayne.edu/files/WSR000453.pdf; Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College,” 209–10; and Barber et al., The New College Plan, 8–10.

⁴⁴ Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, ix; and Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 7.

⁴⁵ Fund, Rockefeller Brothers, The Pursuit of Excellence: Education and the Future of America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958), ixGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ Faust, “Rising Enrollments and Effective Use of Faculty Resources,” 260.

⁴⁷ CSC Palos Verdes is now known as CSU Dominguez Hills. Julian Hartt, “Small College Planned Within Large College,” Los Angeles Times, July 26, 1964, B1.

⁴⁸ Quotation from Barber et al., The New College Plan, 9. For Beloit and New College of Florida, see Hayward, Sumner, “Beloit Plan,” Liberal Education 50, no. 3 (Oct. 1964), 335–48Google Scholar; and Elmendorf, John, “New College, Sarasota, Florida,” in The New Colleges: Toward an Appraisal, ed. Dressel, Paul L. (Iowa City, IA: The American College Testing Program, and The American Association for Higher Education, 1971), 177–84Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Hamilton and Varner, “Curriculum Michigan State University-Oakland”; Hayes, “A History of the College of Social Studies”; Elmendorf, “New College”; and Barber et al., The New College Plan. For another proposal, see Megaw, Neill, “A Proposal for a New College of Liberal Arts,” AAUP Bulletin 47, no. 4 (Dec. 1961), 330–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ Barber et al., The New College Plan, 9.

⁵¹ Hayward, , “Liberal Arts College in a World in Transition,” Liberal Education 51, no. 4 (Dec. 1965), 495Google Scholar; and Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College.”

⁵² Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 105–7; and Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, 186.

⁵³ Kerr, Clark, The Uses of the University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 5Google Scholar. For effects on undergraduates, see 48–49.

⁵⁴ “Clark Kerr and the Founding of UC Santa Cruz,” interview by Randall Jarrell, Feb. 2, 1989, Regional History Project, UCSC Library, 1–2, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9bw645n9.

⁵⁵ As quoted in Gaff, The Cluster College, 107.

⁵⁶ Kliewer, The Innovative Campus, 119–21.

⁵⁷ As quoted in Hayes, “A History of the College of Social Studies,” 17.

⁵⁸ Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, 346; and Brick, Age of Contradiction, xiv.

⁵⁹ Hamilton and Varner, “Curriculum Michigan State University-Oakland,” 7.

⁶⁰ Barber et al., The New College Plan, 7.

⁶¹ Hartt, “Small College Planned Within Large College”; Johnson, “Hofstra Takes Wraps Off Its Speed-Up Plan”; and Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 220.

⁶² Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College”; and Hayward, “Beloit Plan.”

⁶³ Katrina Green, “Monteith College: Spreading Innovation,” in Newell et al., Maverick Colleges, 58; and Theodore M. Newcomb et al., “Self-Selection and Change,” in Gaff, The Cluster College, 137–60. While experimental colleges sought to expand access, few directly discussed racial or gender inclusion (as is apparent in the earlier quote about education for the “free man”). At schools like Monteith and Hofstra's New College, increasing access meant including commuter and working-class students. At others, like Hampshire and Wesleyan, it simply meant educating more students without sacrificing quality. Pitzer was an exception to this for women, and SUNY Old Westbury and Livingston College prioritized access for racial minorities.

⁶⁴ Quotation from Hatch, “The Experimental College,” 2; and Fund for the Advancement of Education, Decade of Experiment.

⁶⁵ For example, in 1969 over 50 percent of students supported pass-fail grading. Trow, Martin A., Aspects of American Higher Education, 1969–1975 (Berkeley, CA: Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, 1977), 14Google Scholar. For the spread of other reforms, see Fred M. Hechinger, “Some Campus Reforms Come Quietly,” New York Times, May 18, 1969, E11.

⁶⁶ Mario Savio, “Sit-in Address on the Steps of Sproul Hall” (speech, University of California at Berkeley, Dec. 2, 1964), American Rhetoric, https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mariosaviosproulhallsitin.htm; and Rossinow, Douglas C., The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ These student-run “experimental colleges” and “free universities” are different from the comprehensive institutions included in this essay because they only enabled students to take a limited number of courses to supplement their traditional education. Brann, James W., “San Francisco Students Run Own ‘College,’” Chronicle of Higher Education 1, no. 3 (Dec. 21, 1966), 1, 4Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Lichtman, Jane, Bring Your Own Bag. A Report on Free Universities (Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1973)Google Scholar, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED108562.pdf.

⁶⁹ “Man of the Year: The Inheritor,” Time 89, no. 1 (Jan. 6, 1967), 24Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity, 1–2.

⁷¹ For a typical critique of student activists, see Herndl, George C., “Time of the New Generation,” Liberal Education 53, no. 2 (May 1967), 173Google Scholar.

⁷² This editorial first appeared in The Cresset, “Borrowed Editorial: Reflections on Berkeley,” Liberal Education 51, no. 2 (May 1965), 316Google Scholar.

⁷³ “Joint Statement on Rights and Freedoms of Students,” AAUP Bulletin 54, no. 2 (1968), 258–261Google Scholar; and AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” Liberal Education 54, no. 1 (March 1968), 110–20Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Butterfield, Victor L., “Counter-Attack in Liberal Learning,” Liberal Education 52, no. 1 (March 1966), 8Google Scholar. Along with founding Wesleyan's experimental cluster colleges, in 1968 Butterfield was appointed director of the AAC's Special Committee on Liberal Studies, and from 1969 to 1970 he was acting president at New College of Florida. “Victor L. Butterfield Dies at 71; President Emeritus of Wesleyan,” New York Times, Nov. 20, 1975, 44.

⁷⁵ As cited in Francis P. Koster, “Study of an ‘Experiment’: Old Westbury College. An Analysis of the Failure of a State Supported Experimental College,” 1976, 32–33, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED111231.pdf. Biographical information from Wolfgang Saxon, “Samuel B. Gould, 86, Unifier of SUNY, Dies,” New York Times, July 16, 1997, A17.

⁷⁶ Butterfield, “Counter-Attack in Liberal Learning,” 8.

⁷⁷ Like Faust, Ward also served at Chicago under Hutchins. “Clarence H. Faust Dead at 74; Teacher and Aide of Ford Fund,” New York Times, May 22, 1975, 42.

⁷⁸ Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1968 (New York: Ford Foundation, 1968), 19aGoogle Scholar. This matches Reuben's analysis of the Ford Foundation's efforts to work with activists. Reuben, Julie A., “Consorting with the Barbarians at the Gate: McGeorge Bundy, the Ford Foundation, and Student Activism in the Late 1960s,” in Making the American Century: Essays on the Political Culture of Twentieth Century America, ed. Schulman, Bruce J. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1967 (New York: Ford Foundation, 1967), 33–34Google Scholar; and Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1968, 19a.

⁸⁰ In fact, Mario Savio lamented the university's lack of support for Tussman's Experimental College at Berkeley. Hollinger, David A., “A View from the Margins,” in The Free Speech Movement: Reflections on Berkeley in the 1960s, ed. Cohen, Robert and Zelnik, Reginald E. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 178–84Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Newcomb et al., “Self-Selection and Change,” 148. The Residential College was spearheaded by Theodore Newcomb, whose prior teaching experience and psychological research at Bennington had reinforced his focus on community. Gamson, Zelda F., Boyk, Barbara, and Gipson, Gay, “Experimental College Grads: Getting Theirs,” Change 9, no. 9 (Sept. 1977), 48–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸² Newcomb et al., “Self-Selection and Change,” 145; Paul Heist and John Bilorusky, “A Special Breed of Student,” in Gaff, The Cluster College, 99; and Trow, Habits of Mind.

⁸³ Professors also supported partnership by helping eliminate paternalistic in loco parentis policies. Julie A. Reuben, “The Limits of Freedom: Student Activists and Educational Reform at Berkeley in the 1960s,” in Cohen and Zelnik, The Free Speech Movement: Reflections on Berkeley in the 1960s, 490.

⁸⁴ Harris Wofford, “Creating an Experimental College of a State University with Students as Full Partners” (Jan. 1970), 1, http://www.oldwestburyoralhistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/WoffordHarrisL-CreatingExperimentalCollege-Jan1970-pp46.pdf.

⁸⁵ Bruce Delbridge and Noel Bourasaw, “President Bunke Answers Questions,” The Western Washington State College Collegian (Bellingham, WA), Sept. 23, 1966, A8.

⁸⁶ “A [Student] Proposal for Hampshire College,” Feb. 2, 1966, https://compass.fivecolleges.edu/object/hampshire:1243; Dean E. Clabaugh, “Planning for the Evergreen State College: History and Progress,” June 15, 1970, http://archives.evergreen.edu/1971/1971-01/planningtesc_June1970.pdf; and Sanford, Nevitt, “The Campus Crisis in Authority,” Educational Record 51, no. 2 (Spring 1970), 112–16Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ “A [Student] Proposal for Hampshire College,” 1. Students’ and leaders’ desire for individual freedom was also tied to the growing influence of humanistic psychology in the mid-1960s, which emphasized personal liberation and individuality. Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity; and Herman, Ellen, “Being and Doing: Humanistic Psychology and the Spirit of the 1960s,” in Sights on the Sixties, ed. Tischler, Barbara L. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992)Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 224.

⁸⁹ Mervyn L. Cadwallader, “Experiment at San Jose,” paper presented at the Conference on Alternative Higher Education, Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA, Sept. 1981, 6–8, http://archives.evergreen.edu/1982/1982-09/1981-HE-Alternatives_Conf/CadwalladerM-Experiment_at_San-Jose.pdf.

⁹⁰ Sanford, “The Campus Crisis in Authority”; Wofford, “Creating an Experimental College,” 12–13; Kliewer, The Innovative Campus, 114–45; and Butterfield, “Counter-Attack in Liberal Learning.”

⁹¹ Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, 368–80; and Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind, 217–51.

⁹² Dyke, Nella Van, “The Location of Student Protest: Patterns of Activism at American Universities in the 1960s,” in Student Protest: The Sixties and After, ed. De Groot, Gerard J. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1998), 27–36Google Scholar.

⁹³ Marcuse, Herbert, “Repressive Tolerance,” in A Critique of Pure Tolerance, ed. Wolff, Robert Paul, Moore, Barrington Jr., and Marcuse, Herbert (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965), 81Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Also see “The Embattled University,” special issue, Daedalus 99, no. 1 (Jan. 1970)Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ Charlie Bright and Michelle McClellan, “A Short History of the Residential College at the University of Michigan,” June 2015, https://lsa.umich.edu/rc/about-us/history-of-the-residential-college.html.

⁹⁶ “Snyder-Phillips Hall,” MSU Facts, June 26, 2011, http://msufacts.tumblr.com/post/6945423428/snyphi.

⁹⁷ “Provost's Commission on Snyder-Phillips Report: Co-Educational Living, 1970” folder 34, box 2318, Office of the Secretary of the Board of Trustees Records, UA.1.2, Michigan State University Archives and Historical Collections, East Lansing, MI.

⁹⁸ As summarized by MacDonald, Gary B., Five Experimental Colleges: Bensalem, Antioch-Putney, Franconia, Old Westbury, Fairhaven (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 199Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ As cited in Bright and McClellan, “A Short History of the Residential College,” 4.

¹⁰⁰ Coyne, John, “Bensalem: When the Dream Died,” Change 4, no. 8 (Oct. 1972), 40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰¹ Cadwallader, “Experiment at San Jose,” 8. Cadwallader also worked at Old Westbury and The Evergreen State College.

¹⁰² Educational Advisory Committee, “Report of the Educational Advisory Committee to the President of Hampshire College,” April 13, 1966, in Five College Compass Digital Collections, https://compass.fivecolleges.edu/object/hampshire:1253; Melvin Cherno, interview by Harvey Burdick, July 8, 1999, Oakland University Chronicles, Oakland University Archives and Historical Collections, https://our.oakland.edu/bitstream/handle/10323/1495/Cherno.pdf; Packard, “Fairhaven: Harbinger or Hostage?”; and Lyon, David N., “Embryo: A Radical Experiment in Learning,” Journal of Higher Education 50, no. 1 (Jan. 1979), 30–47Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ “A [Student] Proposal for Hampshire College.” For students’ questioning of faculty authority beyond experimental colleges, see Reuben, “The Limits of Freedom.”

¹⁰⁴ As cited in Bright and McClellan, “A Short History of the Residential College,” 3.

¹⁰⁵ Harris Wofford, “Letter to New Colleagues,” Sept. 25, 1968, 7, Old Westbury Oral History Project, http://www.oldwestburyoralhistory.org/topics/primary-documents/.

¹⁰⁶ Wofford, “New College at Old Westbury,” 191.

¹⁰⁷ “New College at Old Westbury,” 192. For more on students’ view of participatory democracy, see Miller, Jim, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Cited in Wofford, “New College at Old Westbury,” 190.

¹⁰⁹ “A [Student] Proposal for Hampshire College,” 2.

¹¹⁰ Cadwallader, “Experiment at San Jose,” 10; MacDonald, Five Experimental Colleges, 200; and Lyon, “Embryo,” 36–40. For more on students, see Reuben, “The Limits of Freedom,” 490–92.

¹¹¹ Hofstra College Study Committee, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Experimental College,” 205.

¹¹² Newcomb et al., “Self-Selection and Change,” 142; Ronnald W. Farland and Stephen M. Bragg, “The Paracollege Image: A Study of Students’ Attitudes” (Northfield, MN: Office of Educational Research, St. Olaf College, Jan. 1972), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED069229.pdf; and Heist and Bilorusky, “A Special Breed of Student.”

¹¹³ Harris Wofford, “Dreams and Realities: How Big the Wave?,” in MacDonald, Five Experimental Colleges, 159–60.

¹¹⁴ Wofford, “Creating an Experimental College,” 13. At Old Westbury, which enrolled a substantial proportion of black and Puerto Rican students from New York City, additional conflicts existed between the nonconformist white students and the more academically focused minorities.

¹¹⁵ Kahn, Michael, “The Kresge Experiment,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 21, no. 2 (Spring 1981), 66Google Scholar.

¹¹⁶ Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 189.

¹¹⁷ Lyon, “Embryo,” 33–37.

¹¹⁸ Thompson, Lyle, “Johnston College: An In-Depth Description of a Successful Experiment,” AAUP Bulletin 59, no. 4 (Dec. 1974), 415Google Scholar.

¹¹⁹ Robert Edgar, as cited in Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 80.

¹²⁰ As described in Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 78.

¹²¹ Coyne, “Bensalem.”

¹²² Kliewer, The Innovative Campus, 95–145; Townsend, Newell, and Wiese, “Creating Distinctiveness,” 43–44; Karla Vallance, “Evergreen: Can a College of the ’60s Survive [the] ’80s?,” Christian Science Monitor, Feb. 17, 1983, B13; and Jones, Richard M. and Smith, Barbara Leigh, Against the Current: Reform and Experimentation in Higher Education (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing, 1984), 30Google Scholar.

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¹²⁴ Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 16. For a broader description of Riesman's relationship with student activists, see Geary, “Children of the Lonely Crowd.”

¹²⁵ AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” Liberal Education 61, no. 1 (March 1975), 46–57Google Scholar; and Michael Bryan, “The Great Inflation: 1965–1982,” Federal Reserve History, Nov. 22, 2013, https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great_inflation.

¹²⁶ Snyder, Thomas D., ed., 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993)Google Scholar.

¹²⁷ Riesman, Gusfield, and Gamson, Academic Values and Mass Education, 47; and William Trombley, “New College Treads Thin Academic Line,” Los Angeles Times, Sept. 10, 1972, D4.

¹²⁸ “Deficit Ends Franconia College Experiment,” Washington Post, Jan. 24, 1978, A3.

¹²⁹ E. Ann Adams, “Prescott: From Parson to Parsimony,” in Newell et al., Maverick Colleges, 83–85; and Grant and Riesman, The Perpetual Dream, 247–52.

¹³⁰ Woodring, Investment in Innovation, 262–64; Riesman, Gusfield, and Gamson, Academic Values and Mass Education, 43; Reuben, “Consorting with the Barbarians at the Gate,” 206; Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1972 (New York: Ford Foundation, 1972)Google Scholar; and AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” Liberal Education 63, no. 2 (May 1977), 351–60Google Scholar.

¹³¹ Pryor, J. H. et al. , “The American Freshman: Forty Year Trends” (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 2007)Google Scholar; and Brint, Steven G. et al. , “From the Liberal to the Practical Arts in American Colleges and Universities: Organizational Analysis and Curricular Change,” Journal of Higher Education 76, no. 2 (March 2005), 151–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an overview of this shift in attitudes, see Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1987), 245–62Google Scholar.

¹³² Trow, Aspects of American Higher Education, 1969–1975, 14.

¹³³ Gamson, Boyk, and Gipson, “Experimental College Grads,” 48; Lyon, “Embryo”; and Robert Reinhold, “At Brown, Trend Is Back to Grades and Tradition,” New York Times, Feb. 24, 1974, 1. Brown is not included in table 1 because it involved the campus-wide reform of an existing institution (which was initiated by students in 1967), but it embodies many of the reforms implemented at experimental colleges in the 1960s. Magaziner, Ira and Maxwell, Elliot [with others] The Magaziner-Maxwell Report: The Seed of a Curricular Revolution at Brown (1967; repr., Providence, RI: Open Jar Foundation, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹³⁴ Packard, “Fairhaven: Harbinger or Hostage?,” 90; and Lyon, “Embryo,” 42.

¹³⁵ Ness, Frederic W., “Address of the President,” Liberal Education 59, no. 1 (March 1973), 74Google Scholar.

¹³⁶ AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” Liberal Education 59, no. 1 (March 1973), 40–51Google Scholar; Goldberg, Maxwell H., “Vocational Training, Career Orientation, and Liberal Education,” Liberal Education 61, no. 3 (Oct. 1975), 309–18Google Scholar; and Ness, Frederic W., “Address of the President,” Liberal Education 62, no. 2 (May 1976), 308–15Google Scholar.

¹³⁷ AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” March 1973, 48.

¹³⁸ Shoben, Edward Joseph, “Commission on Liberal Learning,” Liberal Education 59, no. 1 (March 1973), 32Google Scholar; AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” May 1977; and AAC Board of Directors, “Report of the Board of Directors,” Liberal Education 64, no. 2 (May 1978), 199–206Google Scholar.

¹³⁹ As cited in Green, “Monteith College: Spreading Innovation,” 61. For further detail, see Pauline Manusho, “WSU Kills Monteith, Plans New Colleges,” Ann Arbor Sun, Dec. 31, 1975, 3, 30.

¹⁴⁰ Catherine Raftrey, “University College Phase-out Announced,” The State News (East Lansing, MI), Nov. 2, 1978, 1.

¹⁴¹ Lyon, “Embryo”; and Packard, “Fairhaven: Harbinger or Hostage?,” 91.

¹⁴² Freeland, Academia's Golden Age, 70.