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¹¹ The pupil records I use come from a dataset that I developed for my PhD dissertation that consists of information from approximately 600 records of students who either attended a variety of different special classes (including auxiliary classes, junior vocational schools, and other special classes) at three different Toronto schools, or attended those three schools and were recommended for special classes at other schools, between approximately 1918 and 1945. As part of my researcher agreement with the Toronto District School Board (TDSB), I have replaced with pseudonyms the names of individual students whose records I use. The three different schools I selected for this research are the best available representations of different types of schools and neighborhoods in Toronto, based on the record cards that have survived in the archives. I thank the TDSB for granting me permission to use these records. See Ellis, Jason A., “'Backward and Brilliant Children': A Social and Policy History of Disability, Childhood, and Education in Toronto's Special Education Classes, 1910 to 1945,” (PhD dissertation, York University, 2011).Google Scholar

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¹⁴ Valverde, Mariana, The Age of Light, Soap, and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885–1925 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 686–94; Hardy, E. A. and Cochrane, Honora, Centennial Story: The Board of Education for the City of Toronto, 1850–1950 (Toronto: Thomas Nelson, 1950), 126–30; Clark, C. S., Of Toronto the Good: The Queen City of Canada as It Is (Montreal: The Toronto Publishing Company, 1898).Google Scholar

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¹⁶ See Hardy, and Cochrane, , Centennial Story, 117–41.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Tyack, David B., The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 686–94.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ Ibid., 28–29.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Terman, , Intelligence of Schoolchildren, 24–25. Ayres, , perhaps not incidentally, had been first off the mark, in 1911, to criticize the tool that Terman adapted—the Binet tests—which Ayres argued could not measure “native ability.” Chapman, , Schools as Sorters. 29.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ I arrived at the number myself by tallying separate statistics that Clarke reported to the TBE in 1920 and 1921. It is not clear how Clarke counted and the tally may account for the same children examined more than once. See TBE Annual Report 1920, 55–57: TBE Annual Report 1921, 75.Google Scholar

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⁷³ TDSBA. “Hester How PS” Office Record Card (hereafter, O.R.C.) A-D, Drawer, Admission-Discharge-Promotion card (hereafter, A.D.P.) A-L., Drawer ‘Johnnie, H.’ O.R.C., A.D.P.; “Hester How PS” J-M, O.R.C. Drawer, “Hester How PS” A-L., A.D.P. Drawer ‘Johnnie, H.’ O.R.C., A.D.P. ‘Gerry, G.'Google Scholar

⁷⁴ See TDBSA. “Hester How PS” A.D.P. Drawers A-L, M-Z, 1923–24 and “Hester How PS,” A-D, O.R.C. Drawers, E-I, J-M, Mc-Si, Sh-Z. I have partial records only (not including IQ test results) for another sixty-seven pupils who attended auxiliary class at Hester How PS. Toronto public schools used two types of student record cards in this period. Only the more detailed Admission-Discharge-Promotion (ADP) cards contain IQ test results. Office record cards (O.R.C.), which include more demographic information but do not contain IQ test results, are more likely to have survived in the archives than ADP cards. “Psychological Examination Reports,” describing the testing moment, are appended to some children's student records. But by no means do I have Psychological Examination Reports for all the students whose IQ scores I know from their ADP cards. On my choice of Hester How PS for this study, see note 11 above. See also, Ellis, “Backward and Brilliant Children,” 32–36.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ TDSBA. “Hester How PS” A-D, O.R.C. Drawer, A-L., A.D.P. Drawer ‘George, W.’ O.R.C., A.D.P. Some Toronto schools also had special “foreign classes” for recent immigrants who were learning English. Ellis, “Backward and Brilliant Children,” 15. It is not clear why George W. attended the auxiliary class and not the foreign class, although it is possible there was no foreign class at Hester How PS in 1922.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ George's, record card states the reason he was admitted to the auxiliary class. Most other students’ records do not.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ TDSBA. “Hester How PS” J-L, O.R.C. Drawer, A-L., A.D.P. Drawer ‘James, B.’ O.R.C., A.D.P.Google Scholar

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⁸⁰ Franklin, , From ‘Backwardness’ to ‘At-Risk', 43–46 and Franklin, , “Progressivism and Curriculum Differentiation,” 586–90. Joseph Tropea makes a somewhat similar argument explaining the pupil selection process for—indeed the purposes of—special classes in America's urban schools in the first half of the twentieth century. Tropea argues that while outwardly school authorities may have offered different justifications for special education (including “scientific,” IQ-based justifications), these justifications disguised the “backstage rules,” or true purposes to which school authorities and teachers adapted special education: to manage and control populations of unruly and difficult to teach students in a period of new compulsory attendance rules and rising and diversifying school enrollments. Tropea, , “Bureaucratic Order and Special Children,” 37–38. Tropea's social control argument, in my view, is less convincing than Franklin's argument about the purposes of special classes at Lee Street. Tropea seems to infer motives and he lacks the sort of placement evidence from individual cases that supports Franklin's claims.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Ryan, , “From Child Study to Efficiency,” 343–51.Google Scholar

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