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3 Ibid., 65. On the origin and expansion of die movement to teach cultural gifts in American schools, see Selig, Diana Americans All: The Cultural Gifts Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).Google Scholar

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10 Boas was the first to examine how textbooks defined the concept of “race.” His results were published as American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, Science Condemns Racism: A Reply to the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York (New York: ACDIF, 1939), which is available in the New York Public Library, New York, NY. Before 1939, minority activists critiqued how schoolbooks portrayed their own minority groups, see Zimmerman, Jonathan Whose America?: Culture Wars in the Public Schools (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), part 1, “The History Wars.”Google Scholar

11 Boas secured the support of major social science, educational, and religious organizations for his efforts including the American Anthropological Association, ACDIR Science Condemns Racism, 1.Google Scholar

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16 This seems to be the case despite the voluminous scholarship on anthropological luminaries Boas, Benedict and Mead, see: Baker, Lee D. Anthropology and the Racial Politics of Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Cherneff, Jill B. R. and Hochwald, Eve, ed., Visionary Observers: Anthropological Inquiry and Education (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006); Young, Virginia Heyer Ruth Benedict: Beyond Relativity, Beyond Pattern (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005); Pierpont, Claudia Roth “The Measure of America: How a Rebel Anthropologist Waged a War on Racism,” New Yorker 80, no. 3 (2004): 48–63; Banner, Lois W. Intertwined Lives: Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict and Their Circle (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003); Lapsley, Hilary Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: The Kinship of Women (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999); Baker, From Savage to Negro, Liss, Julia E. “Diasporic Identities: The Science and Politics of Race in the Work of Franz Boas and Bois, W.E.B. Du 1894–1919,” Cultural Anthropology 13, no. 2 (1998): 127–66; Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism; Williams, Vernon J. Jr., Rethinking Race; Hyatt, Marshall Franz Boas Social Activist: The Dynamics of Ethnicity (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Howard, Jane Margaret Mead, A Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Mabee, Carleton “Margaret Mead and a ‘Pilot Experiment’ in Progressive and Interracial Education: The Downtown Community School,” New York History 65, no. 1 (1984): 5–31; Modell, Judith Schachter Ruth Benedict: Patterns of a Life (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1983); Stocking, George W. Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).Google Scholar

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20 See for example, Baum, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race; Guglielmo, White on Arrival; Gerstle, American Crucible; Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color; Smedley, Race in North America; Gossett, Race.Google Scholar

21 Mirel, Jeffrey E. Patriotic Pluralism: Americanization Education and European Immigrants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010); Zimmerman, Whose America, 13–80; Zimmerman, Jonathan “Ethnics Against Ethnicity: European Immigrants and Foreign-Language Instruction, 1890–1940,” Journal of American History 88, no. 4 (2002): 1383–404; Fass, Paula Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Ross, William Forging New Freedoms: Nativism, Education, and the Constitution, 1911–1927 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 26–29, 57–95; Barrett, James R. “Americanization from the Bottom Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the Working Class in the United States, 1880–1930,” Journal of American History 79, no. 3 (1992): 996–1020; Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 63–69.Google Scholar

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23 Higham, John Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New York: Atheneum, 1963). Chapter 11 describes the passing of national origin laws in the 1920s and the recession of nativist sentiment after 1924. Also see Gleason, “Americans All.”Google Scholar

24 Fine, Benjamin “Schools to Open Tolerance Drive,“ New York Times, 16 January 1938, 46; “Schools Ordered to Teach ‘Tolerance’ Twice Monthly,” New York Times, 22 December 1938, 9; Benjamin Fine, “Schools Fight Racial Hatred,” New York Times, 12 February 1939, 10; Arthur Chidnoff Studios, “Drive to Teach Tolerance Ideal,” New York Times, 5 March 1939, D9; Benjamin Fine, “Schools in War on Propaganda,” New York Times, 6 August 1939, D5; also see Shaffer, “Multicultural Education in New York City during-World War II.”Google Scholar

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29 Klotsche, J.M. “What the Schools Can Do to Promote International Goodwill,“ Social Studies 31, no. 1 (1940): 3–6, quote on p. 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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31 For examples of tolerance lessons on African Americans, see Leon Lapp and Leon Atkinson, “A Study of Negro Life,” English Journal 29, no. 8 (1940): 659–61; Simpson, Floydd “Teaching Racial Tolerance in the South,” Social Education 4, no. 8 (1940): 549–52; Dyer, J. Pope “A Unit in Interracial Understanding,” Social Studies 30, no. 2 (1939): 79–80 Hunt, “What Do We Teach About the Negro.”Google Scholar

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36 DeBonis, Albert V. “Tolerance and Democracy: A Program for the English Class,“ English Journal 30, no. 2 (1941): 123–30, quote on p. 127.Google Scholar

37 To consider the diversity of intercultural education in towns nationwide, see Minneapolis, MN, “High School Democracy,” Common Ground 1, no. 13 (1941): 112; Hamtramck, MI, “Hamtramck Experiment in Social Studies,” Common Ground 1, no. 13 (1941): 115–16; St. Louis, MO: Helen Gamble, “Children's Literature and Pan-American Relations,” Elementary English Review 18, no. 8 (1941): 283–87, 290; Laramie, WY: Harriet Knight Orr, “History Textbooks and International Attitudes,” Social Studies 32, no. 6 (1941): 254–55; New York: Hymen Alpern, “A Broader Base for Teaching Tolerance,” Journal of the National Education Association 30, no. 2 (1941): 47–48.Google Scholar

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40 Sullivan, Lift Every Voice, 278–82; Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Robert L. Allen, The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in US Naval History (Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 2006); Capeci, Dominic J. Jr., The Harlem Riot of 1943 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977); Capeci, Dominic J. Jr. and Martha Wilkerson, Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Sitkoff, Harvard “Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War,” Journal of American History 58, no. 3 (1971): 661–81.Google Scholar

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42 The publication of Gunnar Mrydal's famous study, An American Dilemma in 1943 also emphasized the problem of black-white race relations in America, see Jackson, Walter A. Gunnar Myrdal and America's Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1981 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).Google Scholar

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44 Ludins, Tima D. “Teaching Democracy through the Living Newspaper Play,“ High Points 25, no. 3 (1943): 71–76, quote on p. 73.Google Scholar

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46 See three pamphlets published by the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (ACDIF), of which Boas was chairman: Can You Name Them? (New York: ACDIF, 1939); The Genetic Basis for Democracy (New York: ACDIF, 1939); and Science Condemns Racism. Much of Boas’ activism in public schools was done through his position of chairman of the ACDIF. An overview of the history and political activism of the ACDIF can be found in Kuznick, Peter J. Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists as Political Activists in 1930s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 171–226. Also see Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism, 284, and Mead, Margaret An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1959), 348–49. For more on the Textbook Committee of the ACDIF, see Zimmerman, Whose America, 72–73.Google Scholar

47 “Schools Rebuked on Racial Errors: Prof Boas Charges Many Use Textbooks that Support Nazi Doctrines,” New York Times, 17 July 1939, 21; “Be Careful of the Word ‘Race,'” New Republic, 26 July 1939, 319 and “Declares School Books Teach False Race Views,” Chicago Defender, 29 July 1939, p. 3. Boas’ survey of textbooks was funded by the American Jewish Committee (AJC). The AJC withdrew funding from Boas shortly after he published the textbook survey in 1939, severing their relationship with Boas at this time. See Harry Schneiderman to Frank N. Trager 3 October 1939, p. 1, folder 92, box 5 American Jewish Committee, Executive Office, Morris Waldman Papers (MWP), YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York. Also see Frank N. Trager to Max M. Warburg 3 November 1939, folder 92, box 5 MWP. The American Council on Education would conduct their own study of racial prejudice in textbooks in 1944 with funding from the National Conference of Christians and Jews, a project Ruth Benedict contributed to. See George F. Zook to Ruth Benedict, 16 March 1944, folder 2, box 19, Ruth Fulton Benedict Papers (RFBP), Vassar College Archives and Special Collections, Poughkeepsie, NY.Google Scholar

48 On Boas’ support for teachers unions and academic freedom, see Franz Boas to American Federation of Teachers 31 July 1941, American Federation of Teachers Convention, Franz Boas Papers, Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society (APS), Philadelphia. Credo of Teachers Union of New York, 14 April 1941 in Franz Boas Papers, folder Miscellaneous; Franz Boas, Freedom of Education, testimonial dinner, National Federation Constitutional Liberties, 12 March 1941, p. 1–2, Franz Boas Papers, Professional Papers, APS. Also see Lerman, Louis Winter Soldiers: A Story of a Conspiracy against the Schools (New York: Committee for Defense of Public Education, 1941). Franz Boas wrote the introduction to this pamphlet, which is available in the Tamiment Library/Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University's Bobst Library, New York, NY. Boas published articles in the New York City Teachers Union journal, see: Boas, Franz “Freedom of Thought,” New York Teacher 6, no. 4 (1941): 21; Boas, Franz “Freedom Defined,” New York Teacher 6, no. 9 (1941): 25. A description of the lesson on race by Franz Boas in the November 1939 issue of Teaching Biologist can be found in Barnet S. Minters, “Biology Can Promote Tolerance,” New York Teacher 5, no. 1 (1939): 22.Google Scholar

49 With funding from the American Jewish Committee, Boas spoke on a radio show on WNYC broadcast over the summer and fall of 1939. See Boas, Franz to Trager, Frank 30 June 1939, p. 1, folder 92, box 5, American Jewish Committee, Executive Office, MWP. A full transcript of the World's Fair panel was published as ACDIF, The Genetic Basis of Democracy can be found in the New York Public Library, New York, NY. The 1939 World's Fair panel was a reproduction of a panel Boas had organized in January of 1939 at the Columbia Men's Faculty Club entitled, “Racial Theories and the Genetic Basis of Democracy.” See “Scientists to Open Drive for Freedom,” New York Times, 24 January 1939, 21.Google Scholar

50 On Franz Boas’ antiracist activism in other spheres of American society, see Pierpont, “The Measure of America”; Liss, “Diasporic Identities”; Hyatt, Franz Boas Social Activist, 148–49; Williams, Rethinking Race; Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism; Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution; Selden, Steven Inheriting Shame: The Story of Eugenics and Racism in America (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999), explains how Boas’ theories on race directly challenged the scientific theories of eugenicists, see p. 108 and 110. For an overview of how Boas’ theories fit into larger intellectual histories of race in America, see Gossett, Race, 409–30. For a discussion of how anthropological theories on race were disseminated in popular culture see Baker, From Savage to Negro. For a critical view of Boas, see Harris, Marvin The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968).Google Scholar

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53 Edman, Marion “Building Unity within a Community,“ Elementary English Review 21, no. 5 (1944): 179–85, quote on p. 184.Google Scholar

54 4Review of “The Races of Mankind,” American Unity 2, no. 2 (1943): 23.Google Scholar

55 Singerman, Joseph “The Spirit of Franz Boas Lives,“ Science Teacher 10, no. 1 (1943): 20–21, 28., quote on p. 28.Google Scholar

56 Williams, Mildred and Van Loan, W.L., “Education for Racial Equality,” Social Studies 34 no. 7 (1943): 308–11, quote on p. 308.Google Scholar

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58 Ibid., 309.Google Scholar

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63 Sloat, Mayme Louise “Science Teaching Can Develop Intercultural Understanding,“ American Unity 3, no. 9 (1945): 15–19, quote on p. 16.Google Scholar

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65 See, Guglielmo, White on Arrival; Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color.Google Scholar

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72 Ibid.Google Scholar

73 Mahar, Beyond the Burnt Cork Mask; Lhamon, Jr., Raising Cain; Cockrell, Demons of Disorder; Lott, Love and Theft; Rogin, Blackface, White Noise.Google Scholar

74 Hartman, “You Don't Teach until You Get Under Their Hides,“ 296.Google Scholar

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83 Schuker, Louis “Citizenship Attitudes in a City High School,“ High Points 27, no. 1 (1945): 44–48.Google Scholar

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