¹ The Office of Indian Affairs is the same as the Bureau of Indian Affairs, which has been housed within the Department of Interior since 1849. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, employees referred to the organization as the “Office of Indian Affairs” or the “Indian Office” despite its formally recognized name, the “Bureau of Indian Affairs.” True, Clara D., “The Experiences of a Woman Indian Agent,” Outlook (1893–1924), June 5, 1909, 331.Google Scholar

² Pueblo Indian communities in present-day New Mexico and Arizona have been noted for their sedentary agriculturalism and their unique village architecture of multi-storied adobe houses. The largest group of Pueblo Indian languages is Tanoan, which includes the distinct languages of Tewa, spoken at Clara, Santa, Ildefonso, San, Owingeh, Ohkay (Juan, San), Tesuque, Nambé, and Pojoaque, Tiwa, spoken at Taos, Picuris, Isleta, and Sandia, , and Towa, , spoken at Jemez. The other sizable Puebloan language group is Keresan, spoken at Santo Domingo, Cochiti, San Felipe, Zia, and Zuni, Santa Ana. (Shiwi'ma) is a language isolate, and Hopi is part of the Uto-Aztecan language group.Google Scholar

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²⁰ Anglos are distinct from descendants of Spanish immigrants, who are referred to as “Hispano,” “Spanish,” or “Mexican” in this essay. The distinction between Anglo and Hispano is important in New Mexico because both groups could legally call themselves “white” under U.S. law in the early twentieth century. In practice, though, Hispanos were rarely treated as Anglos in U.S. courts at the district level and above. For elaboration, see Gomez, Laura E., “Off-White in an Age of White Supremacy: Mexican Elites and the Rights of Whites and Blacks in Nineteenth-Century New Mexico,” Chicano-Latin Law Review 25 (Spring 2005): 9–59. “Hispano” in New Mexico signifies a cultural affiliation as well as ancestral roots. This does not preclude, however, the fact that many Hispano people have Indigenous North American ancestry or the fact that individual Pueblo Indians changed affiliation. For further discussion, see Author, 29–30, 117–18. Lawrence, , Lessons from an Indian Day School: Negotiating Colonization in Northern New Mexico, 1902–1907, 11–12.Google Scholar

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