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6 Ibid., 49–53. Anxieties lessened because locally a 1920 sugar strike failed and the territorial legislature enacted laws to control foreign language schools and newspapers; nationally the Supreme Court, in a case involving Takao Ozawa, ruled in 1922 that Japanese aliens could not become American citizens, and Congress in 1924 passed an immigration law that excluded Japanese immigrants; and internationally Japan accepted a ratio of naval tonnage, worked out at the Washington Conference, that made it a secondary naval power.Google Scholar

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11 Pacific Commercial Advertiser, 20 Feb. 1920, cited in Weinberg, “The Movement to Americanize the Japanese Community in Hawaii,” 58; John E. Reinecke, Feigned Necessity: Hawaii's Attempt to Obtain Chinese Contract Labor, 1921–1923 (San Francisco, 1979), 45; memorandum dated 3 May 1921, quoted in Reinecke, Feigned Necessity, 153. Google Scholar

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21 Among those who concluded that language schools interfered with learning English were Ross W. Bachman, “The Reading Program of a Small, Rural, Elementary School” (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1938), 203; Charles B. Barrett, “The Mathematical Achievement of Eighth Grade Pupils from the Standpoint of Racial Ancestry” (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1939), 73; Arthur L. Harris, “Reading Ability of Maui High School Students” (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1935), 61; and Madorah E. Smith, “The Direction of Reading and the Effect of Foreign Language School Attendance on Learning to Read,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 40 (June 1932): 422–51. Among those who concluded that language schools did not interfere with learning English were Percival M. Symonds, “The Effect of Attendance at Chinese Language Schools on Ability with the English Language,” Journal of Applied Psychology 8 (Dec. 1924): 411–23; Helen Marion Lewis, “A Study of the Speech Attitudes of the University of Hawaii Freshmen” (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1949), 8–9,34–35, 49; Reginald Bell, Public School Education of Second-Generation Japanese in California (Stanford, Calif., 1935), 98–103.Google Scholar

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