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³ Teachers College was founded as the Kitchen Garden Association in 1880. The school changed its name to Teachers College in 1892. It was not until 1898 that Teachers College affiliated with Columbia University. For more on the history of Teachers College, refer to Cremin, Lawrence A., A History of Teachers College, Columbia University. The Bicentennial History of Columbia University (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954).Google Scholar

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⁷ For more on the expansion of educational requirements for teachers, refer to Fraser, James W., Preparing America's Teachers: A History, Reflective History Series (New York: Teachers College Press, 2007).Google Scholar

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⁹ For more on the importance of self-determination in the creation and maintenance of professional stature, refer to Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Freidson, Eliot, Professionalism: The Third Logic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).Google Scholar

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¹¹ On this point, I am especially grateful for the wise insights of an anonymous reviewer.Google Scholar

¹² Eisenmann, Linda, “The Influence of Bureaucracy and Markets: Teacher Education in Pennsylvania,” in Places Where Teachers Are Taught, eds. Goodlad, John I., Soder, Roger, and Sirotnik, Kenneth A. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990), 288.Google Scholar

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¹⁶ Herbst described the transformation as a treasonous “retreat from teaching.” Jurgen Herbst, “Teacher Preparation in the Nineteenth Century: Institutions and Purposes,” in American Teachers: Histories of a Profession at Work, ed. Warren, Donald R. (New York: Macmillan, 1989), 231. Refer also to Herbst, Jurgen, And Sadly Teach: Teacher Education and Professionalization in American Culture (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989). Geraldine Clifford and James Guthrie offer a similar critique. Geraldine JonCich Clifford and Guthrie, James W., Ed School: A Brief for Professional Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).Google Scholar

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¹⁸ For more on the history of the Normal College and Hunter College, refer to Grunfeld, Katherina Kroo, “Purpose and Ambiguity: The Feminine World of Hunter College, 1869–1945,” (Ed.D. dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1991).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Report by Kieran, James to Davis, George, 1912; Division of Programs in Education; box 1; folder 1; Hunter College Archives.Google Scholar

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²¹ For more on the history of the education schools at New York University, refer to John Payne and Elsie Hug, Response to Change: The School of Education, Healthy, Nursing and Arts Professions of New York University, 1890–1980 (New York: Priority Press, 1981).Google Scholar

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²³ New York University School of Pedagogy Bulletin, 1900; New York University Archives. Not alone in their focus, university-based education faculty around the nation framed their work through the rhetoric of the academy. In his report to the president on the 1920–1921 academic year, Dean Henry Holmes of Harvard's Graduate School of Education noted, “we are deeply concerned to develop research, for which there is even greater need in Education than in other subjects.” “The Graduate School of Education,” Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College 1920–1921, 177; Harvard University Archives.Google Scholar

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²⁶ Teachers College, School of Education, School of Practical Arts Announcement, 1916–1917; Gottesman Libraries.Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ Teachers College, School of Education, School of Practical Arts Announcement, 1916–1917; Gottesman Libraries. Such trends were hardly unique to New York City. During the 1920–1921 academic year, 70% of candidates for a degree in Harvard's Graduate School of Education were men, but 75% of special students were women. That year the school conferred five Doctor of Education degrees, all to men. “The Graduate School of Education,” Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College 1920–1921, 179; Harvard University Archives.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Russell, James E., “Confidential Report to the Trustees of Teachers College,” 6 November 1912, 6; Gottesman Libraries.Google Scholar

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⁴³ “Report of the Dean of the School of Education for the Years 1920–1921 and 1921–1922,” NYU Report of Officers; New York University Archives. Faculty at Harvard echoed similar concerns. “As against training, of whatever sort, stands research,” Dean Holmes noted in his report. “The two are of course neither incompatible nor unrelated, although they are at times in conflict.” “The Graduate School of Education,” Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College 1922–1923, 161; Harvard University Archives.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Report of the Dean, 1928, 10; Gottesman Libraries.Google Scholar

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⁴⁶ “Teachers Tell Board to Pay Up or Get Out,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 16 June 1931; “Teachers’ Pay Raise to Wait,” Los Angeles Times, 5 June 1931; “Lost Pay of Teachers,” Atlanta Constitution, 5 June 1931; “School Pay Kept Up Despite Hard Times,” New York Times, 27 December 1931.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ 32nd Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Schools of the Board of Education of the City of New York, Year Ending July 31, 1930, 180; Municipal Archives.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ For more on the role of the state in teacher professionalization, refer to Preston, “Gender and the Formation of a Women's Profession.” Also refer to Barbara Beatty, “Teaching Teachers in Private Universities,” in Places Where Teachers Are Taught, eds. John I. Goodlad, Roger Soder, and Kenneth A. Sirotnik (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990). 224.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Ludmerer, Kenneth M., Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 237; Rothstein, William G., American Medical Schools and the Practice of Medicine: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 107 and 143; Konefsky, Alfred S. and Schlegel, John Henry, “Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: Histories of American Law Schools,” Harvard Law Review 95, no. 4 (February 1982): 833–51; Johnson, William R., Schooled Lawyers: A Study in the Clash of Professional Cultures (New York: New York University Press, 1978), 121; Stevens, Robert Bocking, Law School: Legal Education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s (Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2001), 176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵² For more on the move toward specialization in medical and legal education, refer to Kaufman, Martin, American Medical Education: The Formative Years, 1765–1910 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 150–51; Stevens, , Law School; Ludmerer, , Learning to Heal, 207–18; Rothstein, , American Medical Schools, 120.Google Scholar

⁵³ A critical difference between teachers and other professions is the extent to which members of these groups control and establish the standards that shape the field. To a degree, the difference stems from the history of the institutional development of these occupations. Doctors, for example, existed and worked independently before the advent of hospitals; the cornerstones of the profession were in place before medicine was institutionalized. Rothstein, American Medical Schools; Ludmerer, , Learning to Heal. The institution of public schooling, in contrast, predated the occupation of public school teaching and thus set the parameters around teachers’ work lives. Indeed, teaching is an old profession. But the invention of public schooling transformed the nature of that work in significant ways. Mattingly, Paul H., The Classless Profession: American Schoolmen in the Nineteenth Century, New York University Series in Education and Socialization in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1975); Perlmann, Joel and Margo, Robert A., Women's Work?: American Schoolteachers, 1650–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). This dynamic is explored more fully in my forthcoming book manuscript, “The Failure of Reform: A History of Teacher Professionalization Policies.”Google Scholar

⁵⁴ “Debate between Dr. Lefkowitz and Mr. Reigelman,” 26 March 1936; Collection 5279; box 6; folder 16; Kheel Center.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Maloff, Rubin, “Statement on Teachers’ Salaries,” 20 December 1948; Collection 5279; box 6; folder 19; Kheel Center.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Eichel, Charles, “The Principal and the Problems of Teacher Personnel,” 1938; Collection 5279; box 6; Kheel Center.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ Lucas, Christopher J., American Higher Education: A History, 2nd ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 185–223. Similarly, , Ludmerer contends that “goal of medical training was to foster critical thinking.” Ludmerer, , Learning to Heal, 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁵ Rothstein, , American Medical Schools, 140; Auerbach, Jerold S., Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Stevens, , Law School, 176–77 and 192–99; Konefsky, and Schlegel, , “Mirror, Mirror on the Wall,” 833; Johnson, , Schooled Lawyers, 154–79.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ludmerer, , Learning to Heal, 4; Field, John, “Medical Education in the United States: Late 19th and 20th Centuries,” in The History of Medical Education, ed. O'Malley, C. P. (Berkley: University of California Press, 1970), 511.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Johnson, , Schooled Lawyers, 154. Stevens also discusses the process of using university-based programs to make law an “intellectual’ profession.” Stevens, Law School, 199. On medical education, Ludmerer argues that by the 1920s medical schools “served an educational rather than egalitarian role.” Ludmerer, Learning to Heal, 255.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Refer to Abbott, System of Professions; Eliot Freidson, Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy, and Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Freidson, Professionalism. Google Scholar

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⁸⁴ Shuster, George, “Hunter College Presidential Inaugural Address,” 10 October 1940; Alumni Association Collection; box 181; folder 4; Hunter College Library.Google Scholar

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⁸⁸ Blount, Jackie M., “Spinsters, Bachelors, and Other Gender Transgressors in School Employment, 1850–1990,” Review of Educational Research 70, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁹⁰ Blount, , Fit to Teach, 59–79.Google Scholar

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⁹⁴ Report of the Dean, 1936, 7; Gottesman Libraries.Google Scholar

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⁹⁶ In 1936, the School of Education counted 415 Doctor of Philosophy students and 314 Doctor of Education students. “Statement of Registration Showing Student Classification for the Year 1936–1937–School of Education,” RG3 Report of the Chancellor, 52; New York University Archives.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁰ While applied learning has come to characterize university-based schools of education across the nation, not all programs followed the New York model. Schools like Stanford, for example, were founded to “meet the legitimate demands of the State in the matter of the preparation, training, and certification of teachers and school officers” and thus did not experience a stark period of transformation. Refer to “School of Education,” Announcement of Courses, 1918–1919, 35; Leland Stanford Junior University. Boston University followed a similar pattern. Refer to Beatty, “Teaching Teachers in Private Universities.” Harvard followed yet another trajectory. With the safety net of a large endowment, during the Depression years the Graduate School of Education resisted expansion. As circumstances became more dire, the program opted to curtail programs rather than shift mission. “The Graduate School of Education,” Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College. 1931–1932, 175–76; Harvard University Archives.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁴ Relay, an independent graduate school based in New York City, is emblematic of market-based initiatives and offers training in “practical, proven strategies.” According to the school's website, “what our graduate students learn in their Relay GSE classrooms today can be immediately put into practice in their own K-12 classrooms tomorrow.” Refer to http://www.relay.edu. The draft standards issued by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation represent the influx of exogenous policies and demand immediate evidence of the applicability and utility of teacher-candidate learning on student performance. Teachers, the standards state, must constantly “practice the application of their developing knowledge.” CAEP Commission on Standards and Performance Reporting, Draft Recommendations for the CAEP Board, 22 February 2013, https://caepnet.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/draft_standards3.pdf.Google Scholar