Article contents
A LATENT HISTORIOGRAPHY? THE CASE OF PSYCHIATRY IN BRITAIN, 1500–1820*
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 January 2014
Abstract
Both empirically and interpretively, extant histories of psychiatry reveal a vastly greater degree of difference among themselves than historical accounts of any other field. Scholarship focuses on the period after 1800 and the same is true of historiographical reviews; those of early modern British psychiatry are often brief literature studies. This article sets out in depth the development of this rich and varied branch of history since the 1950s, exploring the many different approaches that have contributed to understanding the mad and how they were treated. Social, cultural, philosophical, religious, and intellectual historians have contributed as much as historians of science and medicine to understanding an enduring topic of fascination: ‘disorders of consciousness and conduct’ and their context. Appreciating the sometimes unacknowledged lineages of the subject and the personal histories of scholars (roots and routes) makes it easier to understand the past, present, and future of the history of psychiatry. The article explores European and North American influences as well as British traditions, looking at both the main currents of historiographical change and developments particular to the history of psychiatry.
- Type
- Historiographical Review
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014
References
1 MacDonald, M., Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety, and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge, 1981), p. 1Google Scholar. The analogy originated with Sir Richard Blackmore, who thought that beyond generally accepted reason lay ‘a wild uncultivated Region, an Intellectual Africa, that abounds with an endless Variety of monstrous and irregular Minds’. Treatise of the spleen or vapours, or hypocondriacal and hysterical affections (London, 1724), p. 263.
2 Webster, C., ‘The historiography of medicine’, in Corsi, P. and Weindling, P., eds., Information sources in the history of science and medicine (London, 1983), p. 30Google Scholar.
3 ‘Introduction’, in Bynum, W. F., Porter, R., and Shepherd, M., eds., The anatomy of madness: essays in the history of psychiatry (3 vols., London, 1985), i, pp. 1–24Google Scholar.
4 Porter, R., ‘History of psychiatry in Britain’, History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), pp. 271–9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, ‘Madness and society in England: the historiography reconsidered’, Studies in History, 3 (1987), pp. 275–90; idem, ‘The historiography of medicine in the United Kingdom’, in Huisman, F. and Warner, J. H., eds., Locating medical history: the stories and their meanings (London, 2004), pp. 194–208Google Scholar; Scull, A., ‘Psychiatry and its historians’, History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), pp. 239–50CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, ‘A quarter century of the history of psychiatry’, Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 35 (1999), pp. 239–46.
5 Porter, R., Mind-forg'd manacles: a history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (1987; Harmondsworth, 1990), p. xiiGoogle Scholar; Scull, A., ‘Humanitarianism or control? Some observations on the historiography of Anglo-American psychiatry’, Rice University Studies, 67 (1981), pp. 21–41Google Scholar.
6 Micale, M. S., ‘Hysteria and its historiography: a review of past and present writings (i and ii)’, History of Science, 27 (1989), pp. 223–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 319–51; idem, ‘Hysteria and its historiography: the future perspective’, History of Psychiatry, 1 (1990), pp. 33–124; Andrews, J., ‘Grand master of Bedlam: Roy Porter and the history of psychiatry’, History of Science, 41 (2003), pp. 269–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘History of medicine: health, medicine and disease in the eighteenth century’, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 34 (2011), pp. 503–15; Rousseau, G. S., ‘Psychology’, in Rousseau, G. S. and Porter, R., eds., The ferment of knowledge: studies in the historiography of eighteenth-century science (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 143–210CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 Bentley, M. J., ed., Companion to historiography (London, 1997)Google Scholar; idem, Modernizing England's past: English historiography in the age of modernism, 1870–1970 (Cambridge, 2005); Waddington, K., An introduction to the social history of medicine since 1500 (Basingstoke, 2011), pp. 1–15Google Scholar.
8 Brown, T. M., ‘Mental diseases’, in Bynum, W. F. and Porter, R., eds., Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine (2 vols., London, 1993–7), i, pp. 438–63Google Scholar.
9 Carr, E. H., What is history? (Harmondsworth, 1964), pp. 22–3Google Scholar.
10 Micale, M. S. and Porter, R., ‘Introduction: reflections on psychiatry and its histories’, in Micale, M. S. and Porter, R., eds., Discovering the history of psychiatry (Oxford, 1994), p. 5Google Scholar. The authors exaggerate in terming history of psychiatry a ‘discipline’ when it is really a field of interest, without either the departments that characterize history of medicine and history of science or even a standing conference.
11 Burnham, J. C., ‘A brief history of medical practitioners and professional historians as writers of medical history’, Health and History, 1 (1999), pp. 250–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 Jordanova, L., ‘The social sciences and history of science and medicine’, in Corsi, and Weindling, , eds., Information sources, pp. 81–96Google Scholar.
13 Walker, N., Crime and insanity in England, i: The historical perspective (Edinburgh, 1968)Google Scholar. Volume ii was never published.
14 Markus, T. A., ‘Buildings for the sad, the bad and the mad in urban Scotland 1780–1830’, in Markus, T. A., ed., Order in space and society: architectural form and its context in the Scottish Enlightenment (Edinburgh, 1982), pp. 25–114Google Scholar; A. Ingram with Faubert, M., Cultural constructions of madness in eighteenth-century writing: representing the insane (Basingstoke, 2005)Google Scholar, ch. 7; Stevenson, C., Medicine and magnificence: British hospital and asylum architecture, 1660–1815 (New Haven, CT, 2000)Google Scholar; Topp, L., Moran, J. E., and Andrews, J., eds., Madness, architecture and the built environment: psychiatric spaces in historical context (London, 2007), pp. 1–16Google Scholar, 41–61, 85–104.
15 Andrews, J. and Smith, I., eds., ‘Let there be light again’: a history of Gartnavel Royal Hospital from its beginnings to the present day (Glasgow, 1993)Google Scholar; Andrews, J., Briggs, A., Porter, R., Tucker, P., and Waddington, K., The history of Bethlem Hospital (London, 1997)Google Scholar.
16 Goldstein, J., ‘Psychiatry’, in Bynum, and Porter, , eds., Companion encyclopedia, ii, p. 1368Google Scholar.
17 Wallace, E. R., ‘Historiography: philosophy and methodology of history, with special emphasis on medicine and psychiatry; and an appendix on “historiography” as the History of History’, in Wallace, E. R. and Gach, J., eds., History of psychiatry and medical psychology: with an epilogue on psychiatry and the mind–body relation (New York, NY, 2008), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
18 Brieger, G., ‘The historiography of medicine’, in Bynum, and Porter, , eds., Companion encyclopedia, i, pp. 24–5Google Scholar; Duffin, J., ‘A Hippocratic triangle: history, clinician-historians, and future doctors’, in Huisman, and Warner, , eds., Locating medical history, pp. 445–7Google Scholar.
19 Jordanova, L., History in practice (London, 2000), pp. 141–71Google Scholar.
20 Rosen, G., A history of public health (New York, NY, 1958), p. 17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
21 Walker, G., ‘Modernization’, in Walker, G., ed., Writing early modern history (London, 2005), pp. 25–48Google Scholar.
22 Shapin, S., ‘What is the history of science?’, History Today, 35 (1985), p. 50Google Scholar.
23 Porter, R., ‘The history of science and the history of society’, in Olby, R. C., Cantor, G. N., Christie, J. R. R., and Hodge, M. J. S., eds., Companion to the history of science (London, 1989), p. 35Google Scholar.
24 Harley, D., ‘Rhetoric and the social construction of sickness and healing’, Social History of Medicine, 12 (1999), pp. 407–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
25 Wrightson, K., Earthly necessities: economic lives in early modern Britain (London, 2000), p. 21Google Scholar.
26 Webster, ‘Historiography of medicine’, p. 29.
27 Jones, K., A history of the mental health services (London, 1972)Google Scholar.
28 Wright, A., ‘A century of Fabianism, 1884–1984’, History Today, 34 (1984), pp. 50–1Google Scholar; Wiener, M., ‘The unloved state: twentieth-century politics in the writing of nineteenth-century history’, Journal of British Studies, 33 (1994), pp. 283–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
29 Parry-Jones, W. L., The trade in lunacy: a study of private madhouses in England and Wales in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (London, 1971)Google Scholar; J. A. R., and Bickford, M. E., The private lunatic asylums of the East Riding (Beverley, 1976)Google Scholar.
30 Nicolson, M., ‘Obituary: William Llywelyn Parry-Jones (1935–1997)’, Medical History, 42 (1998), p. 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar. He was not working on virgin territory. Arthur D. Morris (1889–1980), medical superintendent at St Leonard's Hospital, Shoreditch, had already published a brief study of The Hoxton madhouses (Cambridge, 1958).
31 Micale and Porter, ‘Reflections on psychiatry’, p. 7; Bromberg, W., Psychiatry between the wars, 1918–1945: a recollection (London, 1982)Google Scholar.
32 Peters, T. J. and Wilkinson, D., ‘King George III and porphyria: a clinical re-examination of the historical evidence’, History of Psychiatry, 21 (2010), pp. 15–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Macalpine, I. and Hunter, R., Three hundred years of psychiatry, 1535–1860 (London, 1963)Google Scholar; idem and idem, George III and the mad business (London, 1969).
33 Similarly negative early and mid-twentieth-century histories of Bethlem Hospital remain fixed in the popular imagination in spite of abundant balancing evidence. Allderidge, P. H., ‘Bedlam: fact or fantasy’, in Bynum, , Porter, , and Shepherd, , eds., The anatomy of madness, ii, pp. 17–33Google Scholar; Neely, C. T., Distracted subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (London, 2004), pp. 206–12Google Scholar. The culprit here may be a much older novel, Collins, William Wilkie, The woman in white (London, 1860)Google Scholar.
34 Sedgwick, P., Psychopolitics (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Megill, A., ‘Foucault, ambiguity, and the rhetoric of historiography’, History of the Human Sciences, 3 (1990), pp. 343–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
35 Scull, ‘Quarter century’, p. 241; idem, ‘The fictions of Foucault's scholarship’, Times Literary Supplement (21 Mar. 2007).
36 Scull, A., The insanity of place/the place of insanity: essays on the history of psychiatry (London, 2006), p. 1Google Scholar; idem, Museums of madness: the social organization of insanity in nineteenth-century England (London, 1979); idem, ‘“Museums of madness” revisited’, Social History of Medicine, 6 (1993), pp. 3–23; idem, Madness: a very short introduction (Oxford, 2011).
37 Porter, R., ‘Madness and its institutions’, in Wear, A., ed., Medicine in society: historical essays (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 277–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Andrews, J., ‘The rise of the asylum in Britain’, in Brunton, D., ed., Medicine transformed: health, disease and society in Europe, 1800–1930 (Manchester, 2004), pp. 298–330Google Scholar.
38 For example Arnold, C., Bedlam: London and its mad (London, 2008)Google Scholar. Many other (admittedly readable) victimologies similarly ignore inconvenient historical evidence. Keay, J., Alexander the corrector: the tormented genius who unwrote the Bible (London, 2004)Google Scholar.
39 Andrews, J., ‘Identifying and providing for the mentally disabled in early modern London’, in Wright, D. and Digby, A., eds., From idiocy to mental deficiency: historical perspectives on people with learning disabilities (London, 1996), pp. 65–92Google Scholar; Suzuki, A., ‘The household and the care of lunatics in eighteenth-century London’, in Horden, P. and Smith, R., eds., The locus of care: families, communities, institutions, and the provision of welfare since antiquity (London, 1998), pp. 153–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Houston, R. A., ‘“Not simple boarding”: care of the mentally incapacitated in Scotland during the long eighteenth century’, in Bartlett, P. and Wright, D., eds., Outside the walls of the asylum: the history of care in the community, 1750–2000 (London, 1999), pp. 19–44Google Scholar.
40 Gelman, S., ‘The law and psychiatry wars, 1960–1980’, California Western Law Review, 34 (1997), pp. 153–75Google Scholar. The number of patients in British asylums was reduced by 80 per cent between 1960 and 1990.
41 Stone, L., ‘The revival of narrative: reflections on a new old history’, Past and Present, 85 (1979), p. 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tilly, C., ‘Retrieving European lives’, in Zunz, O., ed., Reliving the past: the worlds of social history (London, 1985), p. 15Google Scholar.
42 Wilson, A., ‘A critical portrait of social history’, in Wilson, A. (ed.), Rethinking social history: English society, 1570–1920, and its interpretation (Manchester, 1993), p. 25Google Scholar; Scull, A., Social order/mental disorder: Anglo-American psychiatry in historical perspective (London, 1989), pp. 9–10Google Scholar.
43 R. S. Porter, ‘The making of geology: earth science in Britain, 1660–1815’ (Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge, 1975); Schaffer, S., ‘Obituary: Roy Sydney Porter’, Social Studies of Science, 32 (2002), pp. 477–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Webster, C., The great instauration: science, medicine and reform, 1626–1660 (London, 1975)Google Scholar.
44 MacDonald, M. and Murphy, T. R., Sleepless souls: suicide in early modern England (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar.
45 Micale and Porter, ‘Reflections on psychiatry’, p. 9; Bromberg, W., ‘Some social aspects of the history of psychiatry’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 11 (1942), pp. 117–32Google Scholar; Rothman, D. J., The discovery of the asylum: social order and disorder in the new republic (New York, NY, 1971)Google Scholar; Grob, G. N., Mental institutions in America: social policy to 1875 (New York, NY, 1973)Google Scholar. Obelkevich, J., ‘New developments in history in the 1950s and 1960s’, Contemporary British History, 14 (2000), pp. 125–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
46 Durkheim, E., Le suicide: étude de sociologie (Paris, 1897)Google Scholar.
47 Weiner, D. B., ‘“Le geste de Pinel”: the history of a psychiatric myth’, in Micale, and Porter, , eds., Discovering the history of psychiatry, pp. 232–47Google Scholar.
48 Houston, R. A., Punishing the dead? Suicide, lordship and community in Britain, 1500–1830 (Oxford, 2010), pp. 7–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 285–8.
49 Bayet, A., Le suicide et la morale (Paris, 1922)Google Scholar; Fedden, H. R., Suicide: a social and historical study (London, 1938)Google Scholar.
50 Smith, L., ‘Cure, comfort and safe custody’: public lunatic asylums in early nineteenth-century England (London, 1999)Google Scholar; idem, Lunatic hospitals in Georgian England, 1750–1830 (London, 2007).
51 Smith's M.Sc. in economic history preceded his Ph.D. in labour history under Dorothy Thompson (University of Birmingham, 1982). Digby read economics and history at Cambridge. Digby, A., Madness, morality, and medicine: a study of the York Retreat, 1796–1914 (Cambridge, 1985)Google Scholar; idem, From York Lunatic Asylum to Bootham Park Hospital (York, 1986).
52 Goffman, E., Asylums: essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates (Garden City, NY, 1961)Google Scholar; Ignatieff, M., ‘Total institutions and working classes: a review essay’, History Workshop Journal, 15 (1983), pp. 167–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
53 Murphy, E., ‘Mad farming in the metropolis’, 2 parts, History of Psychiatry, 12 (2001), pp. 245–82CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, 405–30. Murphy was at various times a practising community psychiatrist, an academic, a regulator (vice-chair of the Mental Health Act Commission), a government adviser, an NHS manager, and a parliamentarian. Peter Bartlett, whose first taste of mental health issues was a university summer placement with a Canadian NGO, also bridges law and policy.
54 Dörner, K., Madmen and the bourgeoisie: a social history of insanity and psychiatry (Oxford, 1981)Google Scholar. Far better and more recent books remain available only in German. Schär, M., Seelennöte der Untertanen: Selbstmord, Melancholie, und Religion im alten Zürich, 1500–1800 (Zurich, 1985)Google Scholar; Signori, G., Trauer, Verzweiflung und Anfechtung: Selbstmord und Selbstmordversuche in spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Gesellschaften (Tübingen, 1994)Google Scholar; Lind, V., Selbstmord in der frühen Neuzeit: Diskurs, Lebenswelt und kultureller Wandel am Beispiel der Herzogtümer Schleswig und Holstein (Göttingen, 1999)Google Scholar; Baumann, U., Vom Recht auf den eigenen Tod: die Geschichte des Suizids vom 18. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (Weimar, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
55 Rosen, G., ‘Social attitudes to irrationality and madness in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe’, Journal of the History of Medicine, 18 (1963), pp. 220–40Google Scholar.
56 Rousseau, ‘Psychology’, p. 203; see also pp. 182–9, 200–2, 209–10.
57 Jones, C. and Porter, R., eds., Reassessing Foucault: power, medicine, and the body (London, 1994)Google Scholar; Burke, P., ed., Critical essays on Michel Foucault (Aldershot, 1992)Google Scholar; Still, A. and Velody, I., Rewriting the history of madness: studies in Foucault's ‘Histoire de la folie’ (London, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Still is a psychologist and Velody a sociologist. Dinges, M., ‘Michel Foucault und die Historiker’, Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften, 4 (1993), pp. 620–41Google Scholar; Gutting, G., ‘Michel Foucault's Phänomenologie des Krankengeistes’, in Micale, and Porter, , eds., Discovering the history of psychiatry, pp. 331–47Google Scholar; idem, ‘Foucault and the history of madness’, in Gutting, G., ed., The Cambridge companion to Foucault (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 47–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Gutting is a professor of philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. Wilson, A., ‘Porter versus Foucault on the “birth of the clinic”’, in Bivins, R. and Pickstone, J., eds., Medicine, madness and social history: essays in honour of Roy Porter (London, 2007), pp. 25–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
58 Philo, C., A geographical history of institutional provision for the insane from medieval times to the 1860s in England and Wales: the space reserved for insanity (Lampeter, 2004)Google Scholar.
59 Wilson, ‘Critical portrait of social history’, p. 36. The distinction originated with the German philosopher Windelband, W., Geschichte und Naturwissenschaft (Strassburg, 1894)Google Scholar.
60 Neely, Distracted subjects, p. 168.
61 Salkeld, D., Madness and drama in the age of Shakespeare (Manchester, 1993), pp. 2Google Scholar, 59–60; Neely, Distracted subjects, pp. 210, 211; Kromm, J., The art of frenzy: public madness in the visual culture of Europe, 1500–1850 (London, 2002), p. 25Google Scholar, describes mania as ‘an absolute rejection of civilizing processes’.
62 Porter, Mind-forg'd manacles, p. 280. ‘It is not that Foucault was a historian himself or, if he were, he was a very bad one.’ Bentley, M., Modern historiography: an introduction (London, 1999), p. 141Google Scholar; Rousseau, ‘Psychology’, p. 163, is more positive – and characteristically playful – in describing Foucault as ‘the Olympian master of the opaque style within the impersonal mode’.
63 MacDonald, M., ‘Madness, suicide, and the computer’, in Porter, R. and Wear, A., eds., Problems and methods in the history of medicine (London, 1987), p. 208Google Scholar.
64 MacDonald, M., ‘Ophelia's maimèd rites’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 37 (1986), pp. 309–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Boettcher, S. R., ‘The linguistic turn’, in Walker, , ed., Writing early modern history, pp. 71–94Google Scholar.
65 Cooter, R., ‘“Framing” the end of the social history of medicine’, in Huisman, and Warner, , eds., Locating medical history, pp. 309–37Google Scholar; idem, ‘After death/after-“life”: the social history of medicine in post-postmodernity’, Social History of Medicine, 20 (2007), pp. 441–64.
66 MacDonald, M., ‘Religion, social change and psychological healing in England, 1600–1800’, in Sheils, W. J., ed., The church and healing (Oxford, 1982), pp. 101–25Google Scholar; Moore, C. A., Backgrounds of English literature, 1700–1760 (Minneapolis, MN, 1950)Google Scholar; Babb, L., The Elizabethan malady: a study of melancholia in English literature from 1580 to 1640 (East Lansing, MI, 1951)Google Scholar; Klibansky, R., Panofsky, E., and Saxl, F., Saturn and melancholy: studies in the history of natural philosophy, religion, and art (London, 1964)Google Scholar.
67 Foucault, M., Madness and civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason (1961; New York, NY, 1965), pp. 40–1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harper, S., Insanity, individuals, and society in late-medieval English literature: the subject of madness (Lampeter, 2003)Google Scholar; Chakravarti, P., ‘Natural fools and the historiography of Renaissance folly’, Renaissance Studies, 25 (2011), pp. 208–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
68 Gowland, A., ‘The ethics of Renaissance melancholy’, Intellectual History Review, 18 (2008), pp. 103–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
69 Ingram, Cultural constructions of madness.
70 Ingram, A., Boswell's creative gloom: a study of imagery and melancholy in the writings of James Boswell (London, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, The madhouse of language: writing and reading madness in the eighteenth century (London, 1991); Ingram, A., Sim, S., Lawlor, C., Terry, R., Baker, J., and Wetherall-Dickson, L., Melancholy experience in literature of the long eighteenth century: before depression, 1660–1800 (Basingstoke, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
71 Micale and Porter, ‘Reflections on psychiatry’, p. 6; Tomes, N., ‘Feminist histories of psychiatry’, in Micale, and Porter, , eds., Discovering the history of psychiatry, pp. 348Google Scholar, 359–60; Andrews, J. and Digby, A., ‘Introduction: gender and class in the historiography of British and Irish psychiatry’, in Andrews, J. and Digby, A., eds., Sex and seclusion, class and custody – perspectives on gender and class in the history of British psychiatry (Amsterdam, 2004), pp. 7–44Google Scholar.
72 This approach originated with Davis, N. Z., ‘Women's history in transition: the European case’, Feminist Studies, 3 (1975–6), p. 90Google Scholar; Houston, R. A., ‘Madness and gender in the long eighteenth century’, Social History, 27 (2002), pp. 309–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
73 Small, H., Love's madness: medicine, the novel, and female insanity, 1800–1865 (Oxford, 1996)Google Scholar.
74 Rousseau, G., ‘Depression's forgotten genealogy: notes towards a history of depression’, History of Psychiatry, 11 (2000), pp. 71–106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, Nerves, fibres and spirits: essays in cultural history and understanding (London, 2004).
75 Hodgkin, K., Madness in seventeenth-century autobiography (Basingstoke, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Ryscamp, C. A., William Cowper of the Inner Temple, esq. (Cambridge, 1959)Google Scholar.
76 Kromm, Art of frenzy; Houston, R. A., ‘The face of madness in eighteenth-century Scotland’, Eighteenth-Century Life, 27 (2003), pp. 49–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
77 Schmidt, J., Melancholy and the care of the soul: religion, moral philosophy and madness in early modern England (Aldershot, 2007), p. 16Google Scholar.
78 Ibid., p. 131.
79 Burke, P., The historical anthropology of early modern Italy: essays on perception and communication (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar.
80 Gowland, A., The worlds of Renaissance melancholy: Robert Burton in context (Cambridge, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
81 Haskell, Y., ‘Essay review: the languages of melancholy in early modern England’, British Journal for the History of Science, 42 (2009), pp. 275–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. Terry, ed., Depression in the Enlightenment, Studies in the Literary Imagination, 44 (2011).
82 MacDonald, M., Witchcraft and hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover case (London, 1991)Google Scholar.
83 Brown, M., ‘Rethinking early nineteenth-century asylum reform’, Historical Journal, 49 (2006), pp. 425–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
84 Andrews, J., ‘Begging the question of idiocy: the definition and socio-cultural meaning of idiocy in early modern Britain’, 2 parts, History of Psychiatry, 9 (1998), pp. 65–95, 179–200CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
85 Michael, P., Care and treatment of the mentally ill in North Wales, 1800–2000 (Cardiff, 2003), pp. 2Google Scholar, 5.
86 Rice, F. J., ‘The origins of an organisation of insanity in Scotland’, Scottish Economic and Social History, 5 (1985), pp. 41–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anderson, N. and Langa, A., ‘The development of institutional care for “idiots and imbeciles” in Scotland’, History of Psychiatry, 8 (1997), pp. 243–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Houston, R. A., ‘Institutional care for the insane and idiots in Scotland before 1820’, 2 parts, History of Psychiatry, 12 (2001), pp. 3–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 177–97; idem, ‘Poor relief and the dangerous and criminal insane in Scotland, c. 1740–1840’, Journal of Social History, 40 (2006), pp. 453–76; Michael, Care and treatment, pp. 2–3.
87 Mason, A., ‘The reverend John Ashbourne (c. 1611–1661) and the origins of the private madhouse system’, History of Psychiatry, 5 (1994), pp. 321–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar : Houston, R. A., ‘Clergy and the care of the insane in eighteenth-century Britain’, Church History, 73 (2004), pp. 114–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
88 Williams, S. A., ‘Care in the community: women and the old poor law in early nineteenth-century Anglesey’, Llafur: Journal of Welsh Labour History, 6 (1995), pp. 30–43Google Scholar; Woodward, N., ‘Infanticide in Wales, 1730–1830’, Welsh History Review, 23 (2007), pp. 114, 115Google Scholar.
89 Kelly, B. D., ‘Dr William Saunders Hallaran and psychiatric practice in nineteenth-century Ireland’, Irish Journal of Medical Science, 177 (2008), pp. 79–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; DePorte, M. V., Nightmares and hobbyhorses: Swift, Sterne, and Augustan ideas of madness (San Marino, CA, 1974)Google Scholar; Real, H. J. and Vienken, H. J., ‘Psychoanalytic criticism and Swift: the history of a failure’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland, 1 (1986), pp. 127–41Google ScholarPubMed.
90 Robins, J., Fools and mad: a history of the insane in Ireland (Dublin, 1986), pp. 14–54Google Scholar; Burke, H., The people and the poor law in nineteenth-century Ireland (Dublin, 1987)Google Scholar; Gillespie, J. E., ‘“Every material of the best quality”: the foundation of Bloomfield Hospital, Dublin’, Journal of the Friends’ Historical Society, 55 (1988), pp. 185–89Google ScholarPubMed; O'Connor, J., The workhouses of Ireland: the fate of Ireland's poor (Dublin, 1995), pp. 17–25Google Scholar, 30–8; see, however, Cox, C., Negotiating insanity in the southeast of Ireland, 1820–1900 (Manchester, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Prior, P. M., ‘Mad not bad: crime, mental disorder and gender in nineteenth-century Ireland’, History of Psychiatry, 8 (1997), pp. 501–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
91 Scull, A., ‘The peculiarities of the Scots? Scottish influences on the development of English psychiatry, 1700–1980’, History of Psychiatry, 22 (2011), pp. 403–15CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
92 Houston, R. A., Madness and society in eighteenth-century Scotland (Oxford, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
93 Withey, A., ‘Unhealthy neglect? The medicine and medical historiography of early modern Wales’, Social History of Medicine, 21 (2008), pp. 163–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
94 E. Donoho, ‘Appeasing the saint in the loch and the physician in the asylum: the historical geography of insanity in the Scottish Highlands and Islands, from the pre-modern to the Victorian era’ (Ph.D. thesis, Glasgow, 2012).
95 MacDonald, M., ‘Anthropological perspectives on the history of science and medicine’, in Corsi, and Weindling, , eds., Information sources, pp. 61–80Google Scholar; Skultans, V. and Cox, J., eds., Anthropological approaches to psychological medicine (London, 2007)Google Scholar. Skultans's earlier foray into madness shows both the influence of her own discipline (social psychology) and that of literary studies in a context of feminist and anti-psychiatric critiques. Skultans, V., English madness: ideas on insanity, 1580–1890 (London, 1979)Google Scholar.
96 Porter, Mind-forg'd manacles, p. viii.
97 Leigh, D., The historical development of British psychiatry, i: Eighteenth and nineteenth century (Oxford, 1961)Google Scholar; Scull, A., MacKenzie, C., and Hervey, N., Masters of Bedlam: the transformation of the mad-doctoring trade (Princeton, NJ, 1996)Google Scholar.
98 Andrews, J. and Scull, A., Undertaker of the mind: John Monro and mad-doctoring in eighteenth-century England (London, 2001)Google Scholar; idem, Customers and patrons of the mad-trade: the management of lunacy in eighteenth-century London, with the complete text of John Monro's case book (London, 2003).
99 Carpenter, P. K., ‘Thomas Arnold: a provincial psychiatrist in Georgian England’, Medical History, 33 (1989), pp. 199–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Andrews, J., ‘A respectable mad doctor? Dr Richard Hale F. R. S. (1670–1728)’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 44 (1990), pp. 169–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
100 Fessler, A., ‘The management of lunacy in seventeenth-century England: an investigation of quarter-session records’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 49 (1956), pp. 901–7Google ScholarPubMed; Rushton, P., ‘Lunatics and idiots: mental disability, the community, and the poor law in north-east England, 1600–1800’, Medical History, 32 (1988), pp. 34–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Rushton was originally a social anthropologist who later incorporated sociology into his historical work. Suzuki, A., ‘Lunacy in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England: analysis of quarter sessions records‘, 2 parts, History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), pp. 437–56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, 3 (1992), pp. 29–44; Black, S. B., An eighteenth century mad-doctor: William Perfect of West Malling (Sevenoaks, 1995), pp. 53Google Scholar, 62–3.
101 Houston, R. A., ‘Courts, doctors and insanity defences in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Scotland’, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 26 (2003), pp. 339–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. J. Adamson, ‘Insanity, idiocy and responsibility: criminal defences in southern Scotland and northern England, c. 1660–1830’ (Ph.D. thesis, St Andrews, 2004); Houston, Suicide, pp. 325–61.
102 Houston, R. A., ‘Explanations for death by suicide in northern Britain during the long eighteenth century’, History of Psychiatry, 23 (2012), pp. 52–64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
103 Dacome, L., ‘“To what purpose does it think?”: dreams, sick bodies and confused minds in the age of reason’, History of Psychiatry, 15 (2004), pp. 395–416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Wiseman, S., Hodgkin, K., and O'Callaghan, M., eds., Reading the early modern dream: the terrors of the night (London, 2008)Google Scholar; Rabin, D., ‘Drunkenness and responsibility for crime in the eighteenth century’, Journal of British Studies, 44 (2005), pp. 457–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
104 Yeoman, L., ‘The devil as doctor: witchcraft, Wodrow and the wider world’, Scottish Archives, 1 (1995), pp. 93–106Google Scholar; idem, ‘Archie's invisible worlds discovered – spirituality, madness and Johnston of Wariston's family’, Records of the Scottish Church History Society, 27 (1997), pp. 156–86; McDonald, S. W., Thom, A., and Thom, A., ‘The Bargarran witch trial: a psychiatric reassessment’, Scottish Medical Journal, 41 (1996), pp. 152–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Walsham, A., ‘“Frantick Hacket”: prophecy, sorcery, insanity, and the Elizabethan puritan movement’, Historical Journal, 41 (1998), pp. 27–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hodgkin, K., ‘Reasoning with unreason: visions, witchcraft, and madness in early modern England’, in Clark, S., ed., Languages of witchcraft: narrative, ideology and meaning in early modern culture (London, 2001), pp. 217–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
105 Rosenwein, B. H., ‘Worrying about emotions in history’, American Historical Review, 107 (2002), pp. 821–45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Hunt, L., ‘Psychology, psychoanalysis, and historical thought’, in Kramer, L. and Maza, S., eds., A companion to western historical thought (Oxford, 2002), pp. 349Google Scholar, 352–3; Pollock, L. A., ‘Anger and the negotiation of relationships in early modern England’, Historical Journal, 47 (2004), pp. 567–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Alberti, F. Bound, Matters of the heart: history, medicine, and emotion (Oxford, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
106 Suzuki, A., ‘Dualism and the transformation of psychiatric language in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries’, History of Science, 33 (1995), pp. 417–47CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, ‘Anti-Lockean Enlightenment? Mind and body in early eighteenth-century English medicine’, in Porter, R., ed., Medicine in the Enlightenment (Amsterdam, 1995), pp. 336–59Google Scholar; Goodey, C. F., ‘“Foolishness” in early modern medicine and the concept of intellectual disability’, Medical History, 48 (2004), pp. 289–310CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, ‘Blockheads, roundheads, pointy heads: intellectual disability and the brain before modern medicine’, Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41 (2005), pp. 165–83.
107 Jordanova, History in practice, p. 109.
108 Hunt, ‘Psychology, psychoanalysis, and historical thought’, p. 345; Purkiss, D., ‘Psychoanalysis’, in Walker, , ed., Writing early modern history, pp. 114–35Google Scholar.
109 Bentley, Modernizing England's past, pp. 152–3; Peters, T. J. and Beveridge, A., ‘The madness of King George III: a psychiatric re-assessment’, History of Psychiatry, 21 (2010), pp. 20–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
110 Berrios, G. E. and Porter, R., eds., A history of clinical psychiatry: the origin and history of psychiatric diseases (London, 1999)Google Scholar. On the advantages and problems of retrospective diagnosis see Bynum, W. F. and Neve, M., ‘Hamlet on the couch’, in Bynum, , Porter, , and Shepherd, , eds., The anatomy of madness, i, pp. 289–304Google Scholar; Jordanova, L., ‘Has the social history of medicine come of age?’, Historical Journal, 35 (1993), pp. 437–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘The social construction of medical knowledge’, Social History of Medicine, 8 (1995), pp. 361–81. Among eloquent calls for collaboration between historians and clinicians, see Berrios, G. E., ‘Historiography of mental symptoms and diseases’, History of Psychiatry, 5 (1994), pp. 175–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an example, see Houston, R. A. and Frith, U., Autism in history: the case of Hugh Blair of Borgue (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar.
111 Micale, M. S., ‘Two cultures revisited: the case of the fin de siècle’, in Bivins, and Pickstone, , eds., Medicine, madness and social history, p. 222Google Scholar.
112 Jackson, M., The age of stress: science and the search for stability (Oxford, 2012)Google Scholar.
113 Wrightson, Earthly necessities, p. 15.
114 Marx, O. M., ‘What is the history of psychiatry?’, History of Psychiatry, 3 (1992), pp. 279–301CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
115 Smith, A., An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (2 vols., 1776; London, 1778 edn), i, p. 420Google Scholar.
116 Hochschild, A., ‘Practicing history without a license’, Historically Speaking, 9 (2008), pp. 2–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and debate at pp. 6–23.
117 Hare, E., ‘The origin and spread of dementia paralytica’, Journal of Mental Science, 105 (1959), pp. 594–626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; idem, ‘Was insanity on the increase?’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 142 (1983), pp. 439–55; see, however, Scull, A. T., ‘Was insanity increasing? A response to Edward Hare’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 144 (1984), pp. 432–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
118 Snow, C. P., Recent thought on the two cultures (London, 1961)Google Scholar; Berrios, ‘Historiography of mental symptoms’, p. 175; Wilson, ‘Critical portrait of social history’, pp. 30–1.
119 Peterson, D., ed., A mad people's history of madness (Pittsburgh, PA, 1982)Google Scholar; Porter, R., Social history of madness: stories of the insane (London, 1987)Google Scholar; Ingram, A., Voices of madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, 1997)Google Scholar; Hodgkin, K., ed., Women, madness and sin in early modern England: the autobiographical writings of Dionys Fitzherbert (Farnham, 2010)Google Scholar.
120 Berrios, ‘Historiography of mental symptoms’, p. 176.
121 Gowland, Renaissance melancholy, p. 300.
- 3
- Cited by