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I. The New Worlds and Europe in the Sixteenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2009

G. V. Scammell
G. V. Scammell
Affiliation:
Pembroke College, Cambridge
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Extract

‘Thanks to thy sublime merits the times in which we live may be freely compared with the greatest days of Antiquity.’ So, in 1490, wrote Politian to the king of Portugal, casting a hopeful eye over something like a century of Portuguese imperial endeavour.1 Sixty years later, in a significantly different style, a Spanish chronicler surveying his own country's even more spectacular achievements saw them as ‘the greatest event since the making of the world, apart from the incarnation and death of him who created it’. Since then the idiom may have changed, but not the conviction, and at some time or other almost everything from the unshackling of man's mind from the bonds of medieval superstition to the rise of a capitalist economy has been attributed to the discoveries. Recently we have been invited to see Lisbon as the second Byzantium, and from the Sorbonne there has come the grand apocalyptic message of the birth of ‘un humanisme technique’ manifested in a new and seminal ‘sens du réel, sens du chiffre et de la précision’.

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Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 12 , Issue 3 , September 1969 , pp. 389 - 412
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1969

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References

1 Cf. Bulletin de I'Association Guillaume Budé (October, 1953), p. 79.

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22 Hakluyt, Navigations, VI, 372.

23 Ibid. 353.

24 Cf. below, pp. 396, 398.

25 ‘Prius est historia ex moribus et natura cujusque populi judicanda,’ La Méthode de I'Histoire, in Œuvres Philosophiques de Jean Bodin, ed. Mesnard, P. (Paris, 1951), p. 157,Google Scholar col. 1, lines 35–6. For Ronsard, see Julien, C.A., Les Débuts de I'Expansion et de la Colonisation Franfaises (Paris, 1947), pp. 399–400,Google Scholar 420. For Rabelais I have followed Plattard, J., Francois Rabelais (Paris, 1932).Google Scholar

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37 Hakluyt, Navigations, XI, 340; Barbosa, op. cit. 1, 208.

38 Julien, Les Débuts de I'Expansion, p. 326.

39 Rowse, op. cit. p. 205.

40 Boxer, South China, p. 145, and the general discussion in his introduction.

41 Cf. Carvalho, op. cit. I, 261–4.

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46 Bull. Assoc. G. Budé (October, 1953), pp. 102–3.

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49 Trattato delta Grandezza dell'Acqua e delta Terra (1557).

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54 Bataillon, Erasmo, 11, 247–8.

55 Ibid. 1, 98–9.

56 Orta, , Collóquios dos Simples e Drogas da India, ed. Ficalho, de (Lisbon, 1891), I, 105;Google Scholar Carvalho, op. cit. 11, 32 ff.

57 Bataillon, op. cit. 11, 443. For Quiroga, see above, p. 396.

58 Bataillon, Etudes sur le Portugal, pp. 153 ff., 183–4; Carvalho, op. cit. 11, 45; Cidade, Lições, 1, 165–7.

59 Lopez, R.S., Naissance de l'Europe (Paris, 1962), p. 269.Google Scholar

60 Quoted in Principal Navigations, XII, 120.

61 Taylor, E.G.R., The Haven Finding Art (London, 1956), pp. 84,Google Scholar 105 ff., 132 ff.

62 Hakluyt, Navigations, x, 313, 323.

63 Carletti, Francesco, My Voyage around the World, trans. Weinstock, H. (London, 1965).Google Scholar

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65 Cidade, op. cit. 1, 87, 114, 166–7; Bataillon, op. cit. 11, 299; Boxer, Race Relations, p. 81.

66 Quoted in Carvalho, op. cit. I, 40 n.

67 Carvalho, op. cit. I, 44.

68 The literature is overwhelming. Fundamental are Astrogildo de Melo, O Trabalhode Indigenas nas Lavouras de Nova Espanha (São Paulo, 1946),Google Scholar and Zavala, S. and Castelo, M., Fuentespara la Historia del Trabajo en Nueva España (Mexico, 1930–46).Google Scholar See also Bataillon, M., Etudes sur Bartohmé de Las Casas (Paris, 1965), pp. xxx–xxxv,Google Scholar 201; B. Keen (ed.), Lords of New Spain, pp. 34—6, 63 ff.; Parry Spanish Seaborne Empire, pp. 175—91.

69 Boxer, South China, pp. lxviii ff.; idem, Race Relations, pp. 87–92; Bataillon, op. cit. pp. 201–2.x

70 Lords of New Spain, p. 50.

71 De Inventoribus Rerum, quoted in Davis, D.B., The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Cornell, 1966), p. 166.Google Scholar

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75 Hakluyt, Navigations, x, 406; Shakespeare Survey, no. 17 (Cambridge, 1964), pp. 39–41.

76 Waters, D.W., The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times (London, 1958),Google Scholar pp. 94 ff., 185; Taylor, Haven Finding Art, pp. 215, 222–4.

77 For the views in this paragraph see Auboyer, J., Cahen, C., Duby, G., Mollat, M. and Perroy, E., Le Moyen Âge (Paris, 1965),Google Scholar pp. 435 ff.; Boas, Marie, The Scientific Renaissance (London, 1962), pp. 32—4,Google Scholar 50–67; Sarton, G., Ancient and Medieval Science during the Renaissance, (New York, 1955) p. 110;Google Scholar H. F. Kearney and T. K. Rabb in Past and Present, no. 31 (July, 1965), 107–9, 118.

78 Parry, op. cit., pp. 92–4, 100–1; Taylor, op. cit. pp. 222–4.

79 Waters, op. cit. pp. 144, 191 ff.

80 Sölver, C.V. and Marcus, G.J., ‘Dead reckoning and the ocean voyages of the past’, Mariner's Mirror, XLIV (1958),Google Scholar 18 ff.; Marcus, G.J., ‘Early Norse traffic to Iceland’, Mariner's Mirror, XLVI (1960), 180.Google Scholar

81 No doubt, as Professor Taylor points out (Haven Finding Art, p, 91), sailors and fishermen memorized ‘facts of general experience about the Sun's course’ and used them for rough reckonings of time and direction.

82 Taylor, op. cit. pp. 90 ff., 122.

83 ‘Per hoc instrumentum diriges gressus tuos ad civitates et insulas et loca mundi quecumque, ubicumque fueris in terra vel in mari dummodo longitudines et latitudines ipsorum sint tibi natae’, quoted in Mollat, M. (ed.), Le Navire et l'Économie Maritime du XV au XVIII Siècles (Paris, 1957), p. 106Google Scholar n. I am particularly indebted to the discussion pp. 106–15

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86 Taylor, op. cit. pp. 198–9.

87 Parry, op. cit. p. 94; Waters, op. cit. p. 47.

88 Taylor, op. cit. p. 245.

89 Quoted Boas, op. cit. p. 209.

90 The Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral to Brazil and India, ed. Greenlee, W.B. (Hakluyt Soc., 2nd ser., no. lxxxi, 1938), p. 37.Google Scholar

91 Sölver and Marcus, loc. cit. 27 ff.

92 H. and Chaunu, P., Seville et l'Atlantique (8 vols., Paris, 1955), VIII (1), 453;Google ScholarMollat, M. (ed.), Le Navire et l'Economie Maritime du Moyen-Âge au XVIII Siècle, principalement en Méditerranée (Paris, 1958), pp. 150–1;Google ScholarOppenheim, M., A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy (London, 1896), p. 154.Google Scholar

93 Cf. above, p. 402.

94 E. G. R. Taylor, Troublesome Voyage of Captain Edward Fenton, p. 171.

95 Waters, op. cit. p. 162. There are some interesting aspersions on Drake as a navigator by Kendall, Abraham, ‘a rare scholler’ of ‘singuler perfection in this arte of navigation’, in The Voyage of Robert Dudley to the West Indies, 1594–5, ed. Warner, G.F. (Hakluyt Soc., 2nd ser., no. iii, 1899), pp. xvii, 52.Google Scholar

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97 In Le Songe du Vieil Pélerin of Philippe de Mézières (c. 1380) there is mention of a ship hit by a squall and laid on her beam ends. This could only have happened sailing across the wind. See Coopland, G.W. in Mariner's Mirror, XLVIII (1962),Google Scholar 186 ff.; Mollat, M. (ed.), Le Navire et l'Économie Maritime du Nord de l'Europe du Moyen-Âge au XVIII Siècle (Paris, 1960), p. 135;Google Scholar Taylor, Haven Finding Art, p, 105.

98 Marcus, G.J., ‘The first English voyages to Iceland’, Mariner's Mirror, XLII (1956),Google Scholar 313 ff.

99 Mollat, Le Navire…… en Méditerraneé, pp. 131, 153; Mollat, M. (ed.), Les Grandes Voies Maritimes dans le Monde, XV–XIX siècles (Paris, 1965), p. 22.Google Scholar

100 Mollat, Les Grandes voies, p. 34 n.

101 Chaunu, op. cit. VI, 114 ff.; VIII (1), 607 ff., 1036–8; VIII (2), 197, 292–3, 599.

102 In 1513 a Portugese carvel was in trouble with headwinds: ‘we sailed into the wind, tacking from side to side, and we could not get out of this place… ’ They gave up and waited for a fair wind (The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, in Pires, Suma Oriental, 11, 293). The Galleon Leicester, built on the lines of the famous Revenge, later had similar difficulties, making no headway ‘what betweeen E on ye on boord and W on ye other, for our ship wold ly no nyer’ (Taylor, Troublesome Voyage of Capt. Fenton, p. 170). See also Mollat, Le Navire et l&Economie…du Nord, p. 140.

103 Morison, S.E., Christopher Columbus, Mariner (London, 1956), p. 93;Google Scholar Sawyer, op. cit. p. 70.

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106 Morison, op. cit. pp. 91–2; Waters, op. cit. p. 261.

107 Scammell, G.V., ‘English Merchant Shipping at the End of the Middle Ages’, Economic History Review, XIII (1961), 331–2.Google Scholar

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109 This I can only touch on briefly, and space excludes discussion of the economic impact.

110 Quinn, D.B. (ed.), The Roanoke Voyages (Hakluyt Soc., 2nd ser., no. civ, 1955), 1, 136;Google Scholar Hakluyt, Navigations, IX, 86–7.

111 Taylor, The Original Writings…of the Two Richard Hakluyts, 11, 211 ff.; Parks, G.B., Richard Hakluyt and the English Voyages, 2nd ed. (New York, 1961), p. 170;Google Scholar V. M. Godhino A Expansão Quatrocentista, pp. 132 ff.

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118 Mousnier, op. cit. p. 451; Lynch, op. cit. pp. 153 ff.; Elliott, Imperial Spain, pp. 173 ff.; Parry, Spanish Seaborne Empire, pp. 154ff.; Shiels, W.E., King and Church (Chicago, 1961), pp. 110,Google Scholar 193, 200 ff.

114 Julien, Les Débuts de I'Expansion, p. 269; Atkinson, Nouveaux Horizons p. 263; Taylor, op. cit. II, 217.

115 Cal. S.P. Spanish, 1568–79, p. 250.

116 Mousnier, op. cit. p. 498; Meilink-Roelofsz, M.A.P., Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), p. 121.Google Scholar

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118 Boxer, South China, p. 104.

119 Atkinson, op. cit. pp. 346–50, 404–5.

120 Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow ed.), 1, 249.

121 Bataillon, Las Casas, pp. xxix, 313–15.

122 Cal. S.P. Spanish, 1554–8, p. 278.

123 Celsus, Kelly O.F.M. (ed)., La Austrialia del Esptritu Santo (Hakluyt Soc., 2nd ser., nos. cxxvi, cxxvii, 1966), 11, 316.Google Scholar

124 Carvalho, Cultura Portuguesa, 1, 95 ff.; 127; 11, 46, m ff., 158 ff.

125 Bataillon, op. cit. pp. 182, 287.

126 Boxer, Race Relations, p. 43.

127 Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, p. 57.

128 Boxer, op. cit. p. 59; Taylor, Hakluyt Writings, 1, 113; Keen, LordsofNew Spain, p. 70; Hodgen, Margaret T., Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia, 1964),CrossRefGoogle Scholar pp. 362 ff.

129 Bataillon, op. cit. p. 93; Davis, The Problem of Slavery, pp. 468–9.

130 Taylor, Hakluyt Writings, II, 257, 503; Hakluyt, Navigations, VII, 445.

131 Pires, Suma Oriental, I, 116; Mousnier, XVI et XVII; Siècles, p. 622; Boxer, South China, p. 1.

132 L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, quoted by S. Diamond, ‘Le Canada francais au XVII siècle‘, Annales E.S.C. (1961), p. 323.

133 Rowse, Elizabethans and America, pp. 154–5; Stone, L., The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965), p. 745;Google Scholar Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 11–43, esP– 28–9.

134 Weckman, G.L., ‘The Middle Ages in the conquest of America’, Speculum, XXVI(1951), 130–9;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPenrose, B., Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass., 1955), pp. 166–7;Google Scholar Bataillon, Las Casas, pp. 180 ff.; Mousnier, op. cit. p. 372, and cf. above, p. 396.

135 Hakluyt, Navigations, IX, 422.

136 Boxer, Race Relations, p. 2; Taylor, Hakluyt Writings, 1, 269; Bataillon, op. cit. p. 184.

137 Alvarez, Politico Mundial, p. 262.

138 Ibid. pp. 51 ff.

139 Hakluyt, Navigations, X, 114.