¹ Braudel, F., La Méditerranée et le monde miditerranien … (2nd ed., Paris, 1966), II, 265 for reflections on the theme.Google Scholar

I would like to thank Newcasde University for electing me to a Sir James Knott Fellowship and the University's Department of History for its kindness. I would also like to express my deep gratitude to the (French) Casa de Velázquez, Madrid, for its sustained generosity.

² Levillier, R., Don Francisco de Toledo, supremo organizador del Perú, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1935–1942).Google Scholar

³ Hamilton, E. J., American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chaunu, P. & Chaunu, H., Séville et l'Atlantique de 1501–1650Google Scholar, 8 vols. There is a manageable precis of the second: ‘A la recherche des fluctuations cycliques dans l'économie des XVIe et XVIIe siècles’ in Eventail d'Histoire Vivante … Hommages à Lucien Febvre, II, 389–407.Google Scholar

⁴ Braudel, , II, 285 ff.Google Scholar

⁵ See the outstanding doctoral thesis of Garrad, K., ‘The Second Revolt of the Alpujarras’. Cambridge, England, 1956.Google Scholar

⁶ Braudel, , II, 273–8.Google Scholar

⁷ I(nstituto) V(alencia) de D(on) J(uan), Madrid. Envío 61, f. I. Hoyo to King, 1561. No further date. For an early estimate of the Crown's income in this period, see A(rchivo) G(eneral) de S(imancas) Consejo y Juntas de Hacienda Legajo 80 (old numbering) 24 May 1562.

⁸ For details of Charles V's modifications, see Carande, R., Carlos V y sus Banqueros, Vol. II, Chap. 2 (Madrid, 1959)Google Scholar. For those of Philip II, see Ulloa, M., La Hacienda Real de Castilla en el Reinado de Felipe II (Rome, 1963)Google Scholar. The quotation in the text comes from Ulloa, p. 31. Gounon-Loubens, J., Essai sur l'Administration de la Castille au XVle Stècle (Paris, 1860) is still useful for this as for other subjects.Google Scholar

⁹ Pintado, Alvaro Castillo, Los juros de Castilla. Apogeo y fin de un instrumento de crfdito, (Hispania, 1963), pp. 55–6.Google Scholar

¹⁰ The Cardinal's papers are to be found scattered through the former Altamira collection. The central Inquisition records, preserved for the most part in the A(rchivo) H(ist6rico) N(acionaI), Madrid, also contain much of value relating to his life. Details of his career and the date of his various appointments can be found in B(ritish) M(useum) Add.MS 28,351. Fo. 65 gives the date of his promotion to the Presidency of the Inquisition (1 July 1564); fo. 78 that to the Presidency of State (10 August 1565).

¹¹ IVDJ Envío 50, fo. 72 n.d. but annotated by Espinosa. ‘Garnica en lo de la venta de vasallos con relacion de lo q auia entrado … de lo procedido de ventas dellos.’ In a relation of the same foliation, Garnica declared that the amount raised by selling ‘vasallos’ of the Crown over the period 1561–9 came to 233,000,000 maravedfs. IVDJ Envío 72, Box 98, contains more information on the same subject. The section AGS Consejo y Juntas de Hacienda is also rich in details. The Archive of the Dukes of Alba, Box in, fo. 46, 5 March 1575, has a curious memorial inveighing against the sale of Church property. It is dated by Mateo Vázquez.

¹² A.H.N. Inquisición Libro 1273, fo. 140 r/v.

¹³ IVDJ Envío 38, fo. 125, September 1572, all in hand of MV. ‘Inventario de los legajos de papeles q Mateo Vazquez tiene a su cargo de los q quedaron del Car¹ de Siguenca q aya gloria …’ One of the items listed was ‘Un baul en q esta la visita q se hizo ultimamente a la Contaduria Mayor y Consejo de Haz^da’.

¹⁴ IVDJ Envío 53, fo. 19, MV to K(ing), 17 February 1574.

¹⁵ Quesada, Juan Martírnez, ‘Documentacion de la capellania y enterramiento del presidente Don Juan de Ovando’ in Revista de Estudios Extremenos 14, 1958, pp. 145–58.Google Scholar

¹⁶ The biographical details come from a remarkable death-bed letter of Ovando to the King. IVDJ Envío 31, Box 43, ‘Copia de un memorial del P^ta Ovando estando al cabo desta vida para Su M^t’, 2 September 1575. A good biography of Fernando de Valés has recently appeared: Novalín, José Luis, El Inquisidor General, Fernando de Valdés. Su vida y obra (Oviedo, 1968). According to Novalín, the nomination of Ovando as ‘Provisor’ was read out in the Chapter House of Seville on 28 March 1556 (p. 167). I am indebted to Prof. J. H. Elliott for having drawn my attention to this biography.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Apart from the above-mentioned work on Valdés, see the fine passage in Bataillon, M., Erasmo y España. Cap. Xlll: El Erasmianismo condenado … (2nd ed., Mexico, 1966).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Archivo Capitular de Sevilla. Libro de nombramientos y muertes de canónigos. Canóngia 13, fo. 26v.

¹⁹ IVDJ Envío 31, Box 43, ‘Copia de un memorial …’ Some of the letters of Valdés to Ovando have been preserved, IVDJ Envío 91, fos. 208–88. More letters from Ovando's career as Provisor can be found IVDJ Envío 91, fo. 752 ff.

²⁰ The earliest conclusive evidence of Vázquez's presence is to be found IVDJ Enváo 91, fo. 220, Valdés to Ovando, 6 April 1563. Várzquez wrote the date of the letter on the dorse.

²¹ IVDJ Envío 31, Box 43, ‘Copia …’, etc.

²² IVDJ Envío 91, fo. 242, Valdés to Ovando, 8 July 1564.

²³ The transfer was probably almost immediate. Vázquez's early life is sketched in my forth-coming article ‘A Cardinal's Papers: the Rise of Mateo Vazquez de Lecca’, to appear in the English Historical Review.Google Scholar

²⁴ A.H.N. Inquisición Libro 1233, fos. 9IV/92r, 24 December 1566.

²⁵ A.H.N. Inquisición Libro 357, fos. 5r/v. Unfortunately, there is no date.

²⁶ Archivo Capitular de Sevilla. Actas Capitulares. Volume for 1567/69, fo. 62V. ‘Lunes 28 Julio predo el sor Don R^o Ximenez Ar^no de Sevilla 1567 Horas del s^r L^do Ovando.’

²⁷ A.H.N. Inquisición Libros 356 ‘Suprema’ and the frequency of the meetings.

²⁸ A.H.N. Inquisición Libro 352 deals with the establishment of the Inquisition in Mexico, libro 1033 with its foundation in Lima.

²⁹ The literature relating to Ovando's term as ‘visitador’ of the Council of the Indies will be found summarized in Cline, H.-F., ‘The “Relaciones Geográficas” of the Spanish Indies, 1577–86, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 44 (1964). There is an essay on Ovando in ‘El Consejo de Indias en el siglo XVI: introducido por Luis Suárez Fernéndez’, Universidad de Valladolid (1970). An interesting ' consulta ' in Ovando's hand dealing with jurisdictional disputes between the Council of the Indies and the Council of the Inquisition can be found IVDJ Envío 57, Box 77, fo. 416, 22 August 1572.Google Scholar

³⁰ E. Schaefer, El Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias, 2 vols. (Seville, 1935–1947), II, 352. Also A.H.N. Inquisición Libro 1235, fo. 163V, where somebody wrote in the margin ‘Tomo el s^r l^do Juan de Ovando posesion de la presidencia de Indias, miercoles 29 de Agosto 1571’.Google Scholar

³¹ IVDJ Envío 53, fo. 97, 12 September 1574: an apostille in the King's hand. The King's technical ignorance was balanced by a marked personal austerity. Cf. IVDJ Envío 7 Carpeta 33 ‘Diamantes’ 1581; in a marginal note Philip declared that he was not interested in precious stones but in hard cash. ‘Ya veis q nunca fuy amigo de comprar piedras y aunq he comprado algunas ha sido contra my voluntad y en otro tiempo/y agora yo no las he menester y el dinero mucho …’

³² IVDJ Envío 76, f0. 530. Small ticket in Mateo Vazquez's hand.

³³ IVDJ Envío 21, fo. 233. A single sheet in Vázquez's hand. It has the heading ‘Para la junta de los Presidentes’.

³⁴ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 38, Ovando to Philip II, 16 January 1574. This is, in effect, an enormous relation from which most of what follows is drawn. Philip expressed himself clearly on the matter by telling Mateo Vazquez a little later, IVDJ Envío 44, fo. 51, 19 February 1574, ‘It would be an excellent idea to give the most urgent encouragement to Juan de Ovando so that he can make a great effort this summer to bring about a solution (to our financial problems)’.

³⁵ IVDJ Envío 24, £0. 103, ‘Parecer del Presidente Juan de Ovando en lo del tribunal de Hazienda’. Text opens: Antes que VM^t me mandasse que le siruiesse en la hazienda y despues he puesto summo studio en ella por entender que puede ser medio para remedio de la republica Christiana …

³⁶ IVDJ Envío 72, fos. 32/34, Ovando to King n.d. The following rough equivalents might be ventured. Contaduría de Hacienda = Audit Board of the Exchequer; Contaduría de Cuentas = Audit Board of the Accounts; Consejo de Hacienda = Council of the Exchequer. I have assumed that what Ovando sometimes called the Contaduría de Cuentas is synonymous with the Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas. Ovando possibly omitted the word ‘mayor’ through familiarity.

³⁷ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 103, etc. According to this document the Castilian Exchequer employed over 710 in one capacity or another.

³⁸ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 103, etc.

³⁹ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 113, Dávalos de Sotomayor to Philip II, 4 December 1576.

⁴⁰ IVD) Envío 24, fo. 38, etc.

⁴¹ The quotation is taken from Envío 24, fo. 38. But Ovando had raised the theme some time before, e.g. Envío 101, fo. 212 ff. Ovando to King, 25 November 1573. ‘… y aunq se trate por muy principles ministros no siendo proprietaries y estando ocupados en otros ministerios no lo pueden poner en execucion’ (sc. the ‘remedio’).

⁴² IVDJ Envío 72, Box 99, £0. 9r/IIV, ‘Advertencias del Consejo de Hacienda’ for more details.

⁴³ IVDJ Envío 72, Box 99, fos. 32/34.

⁴⁴ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 113, etc.

⁴⁵ IVDJ Envío 31, n.fol. A list of some of the more important appointments over the previous twenty years: Contadores Mayores = Don Bernadino de Mendoza from 2 February 1557, Gutiérrez López de Padilla from 5 February 1557, Ruy Gómez from 30 January 1557; Tenientes de Contadores Mayores = Francisco de Eraso from 4 January 1557, Francisco de Almaguer from 14 May 1547, Hernando de Ochoa from 10 February 1557, Francisco de Garnica from 17 April 1566.

⁴⁶ The career of Melchor de Herrera can be followed from a variety of sources. The Archivo General de Simancas has in the section Consejo y Juntas de Hacienda an extensive collection of letters relating to Herrera's activities at the fairs. The section Quitaciones de Corte Leg. 34 has the patent of his appointment as Treasurer General, 10 September 1565. The same document relates how Juan Fernandez de Espinosa took over Herrera's job in March 1575. Another source is to be found in the Libros de Acuerdos, Archivo de la Villa, Madrid. Book 16, fo. 259 r/v, 8th August 1567, records Herrera's nomination as ‘Alferez Mayor perpetuo con voz y voto de regidor de la dha villa …’ Book 17, fo. 164 r, 29 October 1576, shows the Marqués involved in the provisioning of Madrid. Further references, Book 18, fo. Ir, fo. 95v; Book 19, fos. 23Ir, 232r, fos. 285v-286v; Book 20, fo. 574v. Undoubtedly, the most informative documents are the letters written by Herrera to justify his conduct, noticeably IVDJ Envío 22, Book B, fo. 301. IVDJ Envío 42 n.f. contains a moving defence of his actions, possibly sent by Auñon to Mateo Vázquez with whom he maintained close contacts throughout. The document opens: El Marques de Aunon dize que auiendo servido a VM^t diez anos en el oficio de Thesorero desde septiembre de sesenta y cinco hasta marco de setenta y cinco y importando su cargo mas de quarenta millones de lo que en este tiempo entro en su poder de los mrs procedidos de las rentas de VM^t y flotas de Indias de asientos y cambios de dibersos arbitrios y vektas de juros y hauiendo dado quenta final …

⁴⁷ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 38, etc.

⁴⁸ Herrera's involvement in the preparation of the Spanish Armada is evident from the papers contained in IVDJ Envío IOI, e.g. fo. 94 MV to K, 7 February 1587—a splendid example of Vázquez's later hand.

⁴⁸ IVDJ Envío 76, fos. 491–503. A superlative example. Date proven by another, inferior, copy, Heredia Spínola, Box 183, fo. 35 ff. Ovando discussed the composition of the memorial, IVDJ Envfo 76, fos. 507/509 in a letter to the King, 11 April 1574. For some of the issues involved, see Vilar, P., Oro y Moneda en la Historia (Barcelona, 1969), esp. pp. 162–8.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ IVDJ Envío 24, f0. 103, ‘Parecer del Presidente Juan de Ovando en lo del tribunal de Hacienda’, 25 March 1575.

⁵¹ IVDJ Envío 8, n.f. Juan de Ovando to Mateo Vázquez, 13 June 1575.

⁵² IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 103, etc.

⁵³ See for this Lapeyre, H., Simon Ruiz et les Asientos de Philippe II, pp. 11–21 (Paris, 1953Google Scholar). Also Martín, Felipe Ruíz, Lettres marchandes échangées entre Florence et Medina del Campo (Paris, 1965), the introduction.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ IVDJ Envío 60, fo. 160. Antonio Pérez to Philip II. In his apostille Philip remarked that he was sending the Decree of Bankruptcy to Pérez and that a date between 12 and 15 (September 1575) was to be fitted into the blank space (at the head of the document ?).

⁵⁵ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 103, etc.

⁵⁶ Auñon in the course of his letters makes the point about the accounts. He went on to argue that the incompetence of the Crown's officials made it impossible to draw up a satisfactory balance sheet. Cf. IVDJ Envío 22, Book B, fo. 229. ‘Por manera que monta todo lo que se le (viz. Auñon) ha de pagar bueno en el tanteo por herrores que ha auido contra el y por lo de las sacas sesenta y un quentos dozientos y doze mill mrs comprouado y liquidado con los contadores …’ An invaluable review of the various bankruptcies of the reign can be found IVDJ Envío 31, n.f. Dorse, Los inconvenientes q causo el decreto de 13 noviembre 1596.

⁵⁷ Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid) MS 12179.

⁵⁸ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 113, DáValos de Sotomayor to King, 4 December 1576.

⁵⁹ IVDJ Envío 24, fo. 144, Padilla to K., January 1578. And BM Add.MS 28,366, fo. m, for more disparaging remarks by Padilla about the Council of Finance.

⁶⁰ Ibid.

⁶¹ IVDJ Envío 56, Box 74, preserves an extensive correspondence between Hernando de Vega and Mateo Vázquez.

⁶² Cristóbal Espejo de Hinojosa, El Consejo de Hacienda durante la Presidencia del Marqués de Poza, Madrid (1924).

⁶³ For an informative contemporary discussion of the seventeenth-century Exchequer, see BM Add.MS 28,455, fos. 98–135. I am grateful to Mr Patrick Williams for the reference.