No CrossRef data available.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 March 2021
This article analyses the religious and other motivations of Robert Hingson and Brother's Brother Foundation in their work on smallpox eradication and international health more broadly. It examines Hingson's development and early usage of the jet injector in mass vaccination campaigns. It also highlights that in offering logistical support to Hingson's efforts in Liberia, the US government participated in smallpox eradication earlier than existing narratives have suggested.
1 Packard, Randall M., A history of global health: interventions into the lives of other peoples (Baltimore, MD, 2016), p. 134Google Scholar; and Kinkela, David, DDT and the American century: global health, environmental politics, and the pesticide that changed the world (Chapel Hill, NC, 2011), pp. 84–105Google Scholar.
2 Brother's Brother Foundation presaged the evangelical emphasis on short-term missions in subsequent decades. McCleary, Rachel M., Global compassion: private voluntary organizations and U.S. foreign policy since 1939 (New York, NY, 2009), p. 83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and McAlister, Melani, The kingdom of God has no borders: a global history of American evangelicals (New York, NY, 2018), p. 198Google Scholar.
3 Moniz, Amanda B., From empire to humanity: the American revolution and the origins of humanitarianism (New York, NY, 2016), pp. 3, 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Like Hingson and his colleagues, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century humanitarian activists travelled abroad to facilitate their philanthropic work. Moniz uses the term ‘philanthropic tourists’ to describe them. Ibid., pp. 6, 170.
5 Bryant, Cyril E., Operation Brother's Brother (Old Tappan, NJ, 1968), p. 22Google Scholar; and Parran to Hingson, 31 Mar. 1959, folder 1258, series XIX, Thomas Parran papers, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA (hereafter Parran papers).
6 There are examples of Americans working as medical missionaries as early as 1834, such as Peter Parker in China, but the phenomenon became more prevalent later. John R. Haddad, America's first adventure in China: trade, treaties, opium, and salvation (Philadelphia, PA, 2013), pp. 100–8. Melani McAlister has shown the impact of the ‘Hocking Report’, which in 1932 urged American missionaries to move away from their traditional focus on conversion to an emphasis on social services such as medical care. The report was part of a broader re-evaluation of mission work and the relationship between missionaries and the people they served and/or sought to convert. After Hocking and with the onset of decolonization, American missionary activity evolved away from the ‘Christian imperialism’ that Emily Conroy-Krutz and others have documented. McAlister, The kingdom of God has no borders, 21; Conroy-Krutz, Emily, Christian imperialism: converting the world in the early American republic (Ithaca, NY, 2015), p. 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Pierson, Paul E., ‘The rise of Christian mission and relief agencies’, in Abrams, Elliott, ed., The influence of faith: religious groups and U.S. foreign policy (New York, NY, 2001), p. 158Google Scholar.
7 Pierson, ‘The rise of Christian mission and relief agencies’, p. 161; and McAlister, The kingdom of God has no borders, pp. 195–212.
8 Preston, Andrew, Sword of the spirit, shield of the faith: religion in American war and diplomacy (New York, NY, 2012), p. 465Google Scholar.
9 Ibid., pp. 475, 481–2.
10 Ekbladh, David, The great American mission: modernization and the construction of an American world order (Princeton, NJ, 2010), p. 171CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 Hingson to Parran, 6 Apr. 1962, folder 1258: Hingson, Dr Robert A., series XIX, Parran papers.
12 Snyder, Sarah B., From Selma to Moscow: how human rights activists transformed U.S. foreign policy (New York, NY, 2018), p. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Barnett, Michael, Empire of humanity: a history of humanitarianism (Ithaca, NY, 2011), pp. 144–7Google Scholar.
13 Hingson's work with Brother's Brother Foundation coincided with a ‘new era of vaccination’ domestically in the United States in the 1960s, characterized by a focus on childhood vaccination and federal government involvement. Conis, Elena, Vaccine nation: America's changing relationship with immunization (Chicago, IL, 2015), pp. 2, 7Google Scholar.
14 Nye, Joseph S. Jr, Soft power: the means to success in world politics (New York, NY, 2004)Google Scholar.
15 Brown, Theodore M., Cueto, Marcos, and Fee, Elizabeth, ‘The World Health Organization and the transition from “international” to “global” public health’, American Journal of Public Health, 96 (2006), p. 65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
16 Heerten, Lasse, The Biafran War and postcolonial humanitarianism: spectacles of suffering (New York, NY, 2017), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
17 Ibid., pp. 322–3.
18 Ibid., p. 5.
19 Luther L. Terry, ‘The appeal abroad of American medicine and public health’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (July 1966), p. 79; Cueto, Marcos, Cold War, deadly fevers: malaria eradication in Mexico, 1955–1975 (Washington, DC, 2007)Google Scholar; Pacino, Nicole, ‘Stimulating a cooperative spirit?: public health and U.S.–Bolivia relations in the 1950s’, Diplomatic History, 41 (2017), pp. 305–55Google Scholar; Farley, John, To cast out disease: a history of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (New York, NY, 2004)Google Scholar; Kramer, Paul A., The blood of government: race, empire, the United States, & the Philippines (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), p. 170Google Scholar; Anderson, Warwick, Colonial pathologies: American tropical medicine, race, and hygiene in the Philippines (Durham, NC, 2006)Google Scholar; McVety, Amanda Kay, The rinderpest campaigns: a virus, its vaccines, and global development in the twentieth century (New York, NY, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Packard, Randall, ‘Visions of postwar health and development and their impact on public health interventions in the developing world’, in Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall, eds., International development and the social sciences: essays on the history and politics of knowledge (Berkeley, CA, 1997), p. 94Google Scholar; Ahuja, Neel, Bioinsecurities: disease interventions, empire, and the government of species (Durham, NC, 2016), p. 5Google Scholar; and Connelly, Matthew, Fatal misconception: the struggle to control world population (Cambridge, MA, 2008), p. 11Google Scholar.
20 Hoetz, Peter J., ‘Vaccines as instruments of foreign policy’, EMBO Reports, 21 (2001), p. 864Google Scholar; Ahuja, Bioinsecurities, p. 21; and Cueto, Cold War, deadly fevers, pp. 5, 7. See also Packard, ‘Visions of postwar health and development and their impact on public health interventions in the developing world’, p. 98.
21 Packard, A history of global health, p. 134; Manela, Erez, ‘A pox on your narrative: writing disease control into Cold War history’, Diplomatic History, 34 (2010), pp. 300, 318CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
22 Manela, Erez, ‘Smallpox and the globalization of development’, in Macekura, Stephen J. and Manela, Erez, eds., The development century: a global history (New York, NY, 2018), pp. 97–8Google Scholar.
23 Ibid., p. 92.
24 Cueto, Cold War, deadly fevers, p. 2; Ziperman, H. Haskell, ‘A medical history of the Panama Canal’, Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics, 137 (1973), pp. 110–11Google ScholarPubMed; and Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, p. 25.
25 Abram to Moyers, 7 Sept. 1965, Hingson, Dr Robert, box 263, office files of John Macy, Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Austin, TX (hereafter LBJL); biographic data, Hingson, Dr Robert, box 263, office files of John Macy, LBJL; and Rosenberg, Henry and Axelrod, Jean K., ‘Robert Andrew Hingson: his unique contributions to world health as well as to anesthesiology’, Bulletin of Anesthesia History, 16 (1998), p. 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 Betty Ann Hogue, ‘BSU alumnus Robert A. Hingson: world renowned doctor, inventor, and medical professor’, Baptist Student (Feb. 1957), p. 6.
27 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, p. 28.
28 Ibid., p. 37.
29 ‘Jet inoculation as a public health tool in the control of contagion and epidemics’, Congressional Record, 15 Apr. 1958.
30 'Robert Hingson, founder of Brother's Brother Foundation’, Brother's Brother Foundation, www.brothersbrother.org/bbfs-founder (accessed 23 June 2017); and Hingson, Robert A., Davis, Hamilton S., and Rosen, Michael, ‘The historical development of jet injection and envisioned uses in mass immunization and mass therapy based upon two decades of experience’, Military Medicine, 128 (1963), pp. 516–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Aaron Ismach also played a role in developing jet injectors. Manela, Erez, ‘Globalizing the great society: Lyndon Johnson and the pursuit of smallpox eradication’, in Gavin, Francis J. and Lawrence, Mark Atwood, eds., Beyond the Cold War: Lyndon Johnson and the new global challenges of the 1960s (New York, NY, 2014), p. 170Google Scholar.
31 Hingson, Robert A., ‘The development of the hypospray for parenteral therapy by jet injection’, Anesthesiology, 10 (1949), pp. 66–75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Hingson, Robert A., ‘America's challenge in the field of public health’, Journal of the National Medical Association, 50 (1958), pp. 114–16Google ScholarPubMed; Hingson, Robert A., Davis, Hamilton S., and Rosen, Michael, ‘Clinical experience with one and a half million jet injections in parenteral therapy and in preventive medicine’, Military Medicine, 128 (1963), pp. 525–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hingson, Davis, and Rosen, ‘The historical development of jet injection and envisioned uses in mass immunization and mass therapy based upon two decades of experience’, pp. 516–24.
32 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 39, 63.
33 ‘Project brother's keeper’, Baptist World, 5 (1958), p. 1.
34 Ibid., pp. 4–5.
35 Hingson successfully solicited medical supplies from American pharmaceutical companies. See, for example, Hingson to Wright, 27 May 1957, folder 5.6A, part 2, box 57, Baptist World Alliance Archives, American Baptist Historical Society, Atlanta, GA (hereafter BWA Archives); Hingson to Dixon, 6 May 1958, ibid.; Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 62–7; and ‘Bishop to Preach on Vietnam War’, Washington Post, 15 Apr. 1967, p. E13.
36 Josephine Robertson, ‘Nigerian infant owes life to mission skill’, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 13 Oct. 1958; and Robert A. Hingson, ‘The American pharmaceutical industry reinforces project brother's keeper in the direction of world peace’, folder 1258: Hingson, Dr Robert A., series XIX, Parran papers.
37 Hingson had earlier practised by vaccinating Cleveland school children against polio. Rosenberg and Axelrod, ‘Robert Andrew Hingson’, p. 11.
38 Josephine Robertson, ‘U.S. physician's “peace guns” captivate Burmese children’, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 10 Aug. 1958, p. 1; and ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 5.
39 ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 3.
40 ‘Twenty-seven countries on medical mission itinerary’, Baptist World, 5 (1958), p. 6; and ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 3.
41 Third Draft, 7 June 1960, ‘Project: brother's keeper’, folder 5.6E, box 57, BWA Archives.
42 Ibid.
43 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 56–7; and Hingson to Kennedy, 4 Oct. 1961, 711.11-KE/4-3062, box 1458, central decimal file, 1960–3, record group 59 general records of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (hereafter RG 59 and NARA).
44 Hingson, ‘The American pharmaceutical industry reinforces project brother's keeper in the direction of world peace’.
45 Rosenberg and Axelrod, ‘Robert Andrew Hingson’, p. 10.
46 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, p. 50.
47 Third Draft, 7 June 1960, ‘Project: brother's keeper’, folder 5.6E, box 57, BWA Archives.
48 Jarman to Denny, 3 June 1958, folder 5.7D, box 57, BWA Archives; Third Draft, 7 June 1960, ‘Project: brother's keeper’, folder 5.6E, ibid.; ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 1; and Josephine Robertson, ‘Project brother's keeper’, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 22 June 1958.
49 Bryant to Denny, 16 Sept. 1967, folder 5.6D, box 57, BWA Archives.
50 Third Draft, 7 June 1960, ‘Project: brother's keeper’, folder 5.6E, box 57, BWA Archives. The US government began funding ocean freight costs for the transportation of humanitarian supplies in 1947. Schäfer, Axel R., ‘Religious non-profit organizations, the Cold War, the state and resurgent evangelicalism, 1945–90’, in Laville, Helen and Wilford, Hugh, eds., The US government, citizen groups and the Cold War: the state–private network (London, 2012), p. 181Google Scholar; and Nichols, J. Bruce, The uneasy alliance: religion, refugee work, and U.S. foreign policy (New York, NY, 1988), p. 207Google Scholar. The government continued this provision, including it in the 1951 Mutual Security Act and the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. McCleary, Global compassion, pp. 76, 173.
51 ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 4.
52 Hingson to Jarman, 26 Mar. 1959, folder 5.6A, part I, box 57, BWA Archives; and Hingson to Maum, 25 Jan. 1961, folder 5.6B, ibid.
53 Hingson to Baptist World Alliance medical mission team mates and our missionary colleagues overseas, 1 June 1959, folder 5.6A, part I, box 57, BWA Archives.
54 Hingson to Friends, 1 Oct. 1958, folder 5.6A, part 2, box 57, BWA Archives; and Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, p. 70.
55 ‘A plan for the development of operation Brother's Brother into a foundation’, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives.
56 Hingson to Kennedy, 4 Oct. 1961, 711.11-KE/4-3062, box 1458, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
57 ‘A plan for the development of operation Brother's Brother into a foundation’.
58 'Robert Hingson, founder of Brother's Brother Foundation’.
59 Manela, ‘A pox on your narrative’, p. 300.
60 Liberian records available through the University of Indiana unfortunately do not shed much light on the degree to which Hingson's mission was initiated by Liberian leaders or by Hingson. Although both were mentioned in correspondence by Hingson, the role of Republic Steel Company, which owned the Liberian Mining Company, and Firestone, which leased one million acres of land for rubber production, is unclear.
61 Claude A. Clegg III, The price of liberty: African Americans and the making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004), p. 6; and Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism, p. 162.
62 Dunn, D. Elwood, Liberia and the United States during the Cold War: limits of reciprocity (New York, NY, 2009), pp. 13–19Google Scholar; and Oral History Interview Thomas F. Johnson, 18 Mar. 2003, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project.
63 Memorandum of conversation, 25 June 1957, Department of State, Foreign relations of the United States, 1955–1957, XVIII: Africa (Washington, DC, 1989).
64 Dunn, Liberia and the United States during the Cold War, p. 70.
65 ‘Project brother's keeper’, p. 11.
66 Hingson, Robert A., ‘The physician and the burning of Rome’, American Practitioner and Digest of Treatment, 10 (1959), p. 1688Google ScholarPubMed.
67 Denny to Jarman, 7 Dec. 1961, folder 5.7D, box 57, BWA Archives; and Robert A. Hingson, ‘Operation Brother's Brother’, Hamilton Spectator, 20 June 1964, p. 29.
68 ‘Brother's brother II’, Baptist World (Feb. 1962), p. 6. There was a long history of Baptist missionaries in Liberia. Poe, William A., ‘Not Christopolis but Christ and Caesar: Baptist leadership in Liberia’, Journal of Church and State 24 (1982), pp. 535–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
69 Hingson to Denny, 22 Mar. 1961, folder 5.6B, box 57, BWA Archives.
70 Ibid.
71 Hingson, ‘The physician and the burning of Rome’, p. 1688. In a different context, Hingson notes American ‘luxury Cadillacs could not roll without the labor and lives of these rubber tree slaves’. Hingson to Denny, 3 Oct. 1959, folder 5.6A, part I, box 57, BWA Archives.
72 Hingson to Ferreri, 10 Mar. 1960, folder 5.6B, box 57, BWA Archives.
73 Hingson to Tubman, 6 Apr. 1962, correspondence: Hillebrand-Hittle, box 30, papers of Admiral George W. Anderson, 1917–76, Naval History and Heritage Command, Washington, DC.
74 Parran to Hingson, 20 Oct. 1961, folder 1258: Hingson, Dr Robert A., series XIX, Parran papers.
75 Ibid.
76 Hingson to Denny, 3 Oct. 1959, folder 5.6A, part I, box 57, BWA Archives. Jarman again funded Hingson's efforts with repeated donations of several thousand dollars. Jarman to Hingson, 15 Dec. 1961, folder 5.7D, box 57, BWA Archives; and Jarman to Denny, 19 Jan. 1959, ibid.
77 Department of State to AmEmbassy Dakar, 13 Apr. 1961, 876.55/4-1361, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
78 Monrovia to secretary of state, 16 Aug. 1961, 876.55/8-1661, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
79 Monrovia to secretary of state, 17 Aug. 1961, 866.55/8-1761, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
80 Department of State to Monrovia, 29 Dec. 1961, 876.55/12-2961, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA. The mission received some funding from the Baptist World Alliance. Hingson to Parran, 6 Apr. 1962, folder 1258: Hingson, Dr Robert A., series XIX, Parran papers.
81 Monrovia to secretary of state, 12 Jan. 1962, 876.55/1-1262, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA; and Department of State to Monrovia, 19 Jan. 1962, ibid.
82 Orr to Adler, 12 Jan. 1962, Brother's Brother, container 2, entry #P616, subject files, 1961–9, record group 286 records of the Agency for International Development, NARA; and Orr to McConnell, 16 Jan. 1962, ibid.
83 Edwin Murray, Robert A. Hingson, Lewis E. Abram, Theodore Parran, and H. Q. Taylor, ‘Mass vaccination against smallpox in Liberia’, Bulletin Supplement, folder 1730: Liberia, series XXXVIII, Parran papers.
84 Dungan to Kennedy, 6 Mar. 1963, Department of State, Foreign relations of the United States, 1961–1963, XXI: Africa (Washington, DC, 1995).
85 Oral History Interview Edward R. Dudley, Jr, 15 Jan. 1995, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project.
86 USS Diamond Head (AE-19) Ship's History, Naval History and Heritage Command, Washington, DC; secretary of the navy to all ships and stations, 11 June 1959, ibid.
87 Dwight D. Eisenhower, ‘Remarks at the People-to-People Conference’, 11 Sept. 1965, American Presidency Project (accessed 13 Aug. 2020). See also Zachary A. Cunningham, ‘Project Hope as propaganda: a humanitarian nongovernmental organization takes part in America's total Cold War’ (MA thesis, Ohio University, 2008), p. 65. The People-to-People programme should also be seen in the context of Eisenhower's plan to share fissionable material with other countries, nicknamed ‘Atoms for Peace’, which were intended to demonstrate the United States as seeking international peace. See Mara Drogan, ‘The nuclear imperative: Atoms for Peace and the development of U.S. policy on exporting nuclear power, 1953–1955’, Diplomatic History, 40 (2016), pp. 948–74.
88 The navy's involvement was also connected with the New White Fleet movement, which was initiated by Commander Frank Manson, with whom Hingson's brother James had roomed at the Naval War College. The New White Fleet never materialized, and the hospital ship initiative Project Hope has often been characterized as its only successor. But Hingson's mission to Liberia likely benefited from Manson's vision. Hingson to Bryant, 13 Jan. 1961, folder 5.6B, box 57, BWA Archives; Frank Manson, ‘Author of the big plan explains’, 27 July 1959, LIFE, pp. 20–1; and Cunningham, ‘Project Hope as propaganda’, p. 58. On earlier US military support for humanitarian activity, see Irwin, Julia F., ‘Raging rivers and propaganda weevils: transnational disaster relief, Cold War politics, and the 1954 Danube and Elbe floods’, Diplomatic History, 40 (2016), pp. 893–921CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
89 Hingson to Rusk, 16 Jan. 1962, 876.55/1-1662, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
90 Murray, Hingson, Abram, Parran, and Taylor, ‘Mass vaccination against smallpox in Liberia’; Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 93–4.
91 USS Diamond Head (AE-19) Ship's History, Naval History and Heritage Command, Washington, DC.
92 The previous month, Burke had met Vice President Tolbert at a State Department dinner. Burke to Hingson, 22 June 1961, folder 1258: Hingson, Dr Robert A., series XIX, Parran papers; and Hingson to Seale, 30 Oct. 1961, ibid. Tolbert also had met Kennedy in the Oval Office during his Washington visit. Padmore, George Arthur, The memoirs of a Liberian ambassador (Lewiston, NY, 1996), p. 120Google Scholar.
93 The navy was frequently involved in a wide range of humanitarian operations in those years, including disaster relief, assisting refugees, and offering emergency medical assistance. In its own account of its humanitarian operations, the most similar activities undertaken involved transporting humans who needed urgent medical care or navy personnel who engaged in campaigns against yellow fever in Ethiopia and broader illnesses in Colombia and Haiti, for example. Siegel, Adam B., A sampling of U.S. naval humanitarian operations (Alexandria, VA, 2003), pp. 19–20Google Scholar.
94 J. Eugene White and Clarence Duncan, ‘The guns of peace’, Christian Herald (July 1963).
95 USS Diamond Head Ship Log, 11 Feb. 1962, National Archives, College Park, MD. Before the USS Diamond Head departed Norfolk, Virginia, the chargé d'affairs of Liberia visited the ship. USS Diamond Head Ship Log, 31 Jan. 1962, NARA, College Park, MD.
96 Hingson to Rusk, 16 Jan. 1962, 876.55/1-1662, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA; and Hingson to Anderson, 10 Apr. 1962, folder 1730: Liberia, series XXXVIII, Parran papers.
97 Bulletin Supplement, folder 1730: Liberia, series XXXVIII, Parran papers.
98 Hingson to Peal, 16 Jan. 1962, 876.55/1-1662, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA.
99 Hingson later claimed delivery of 200,000 schoolbooks and credited Republic Steel as playing a significant role. Hingson to Tubman, 10 May 1965, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives; Hingson to Rusk, 16 Jan. 1962, 876.55/1-1662, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA; and ‘Eli Lilly Co. sends Liberia medicine’, Daily Reporter, 19 Jan. 1962.
100 Hingson to Anderson, 10 Apr. 1962, folder 1730: Liberia, series XXXVIII, Parran papers.
101 Murray, Hingson, Abram, Parran, and Taylor, ‘Mass vaccination against smallpox in Liberia’.
102 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 91–8; and ibid.
103 Hingson to Kennedy, 30 Apr. 1962, 711.11-KE/4-3062, box 1458, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA. Liberians continued the inoculation efforts, which as Hingson put it made ‘Liberia the first African nation to be essentially shielded against this disease’. Hingson to O'Donnell, 7 Sept. 1962, 876.55/9-1362, box 2769, central decimal file, 1960–3, RG 59, NARA. By 1965, Hingson's assessment of the Liberians spared smallpox had grown to one million. Hingson to Tubman, 10 May 1965, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives.
104 O'Donnell to Hingson, 1 Oct. 1962, folder 22, box 1224, White House Central Name File, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA.
105 ‘TV programs’, 29 Apr. 1962, New York Times, p. 136.
106 Curtis, Heather D., Holy humanitarians: American evangelicals and global aid (Cambridge, MA, 2018), p. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
107 White and Duncan, ‘The guns of peace’.
108 Ward to Parran, 15 Apr. 1962, Parran papers; and Murray, Hingson, Abram, Parran, and Taylor, ‘Mass vaccination against smallpox in Liberia’.
109 Hingson to Denny, 20 July 1964, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives.
110 Hingson to Tubman, 10 May 1965, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives; and Hingson to Tolbert and Tolbert, 10 May 1965, ibid.
111 Denny to Hingson, 3 Sept. 1964, folder 5.6C, box 57, BWA Archives. Thereafter, Hingson and Brother's Brother Foundation shifted their attention to Central America, including drives in Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua.
112 Bryant, Operation Brother's Brother, pp. 99–101, 136.
113 Glynn, Ian and Glynn, Jennifer, The life and death of smallpox (New York, NY, 2004), p. 197Google Scholar; and Packard, ‘Visions of postwar health and development and their impact on public health interventions in the developing world’, p. 112.
114 Manela, ‘Globalizing the great society’, pp. 165–6.
115 Ekbladh, The great American mission, pp. 23, 154; Staples, Amy L. S., The birth of development: how the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Health Organization changed the world, 1945–1965 (Kent, OH, 2006), p. 2Google Scholar; McCleary, Global compassion, p. 3; Smith, Brian H., More than altruism: the politics of private foreign aid (Princeton, NJ, 1990), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schäfer, ‘Religious non-profit organizations, the Cold War, the state and resurgent evangelicalism, 1945–90’, pp. 175, 181; Helen Laville, ‘The importance of being (in)earnest voluntary associations and the irony of the state–private network during the early Cold War’, in Laville and Wilford, eds., The US government, citizen groups and the Cold War, p. 47; and McVety, The rinderpest campaigns, p. 45.
116 Irwin, Julia F., Making the world safe: the American Red Cross and a nation's humanitarian awakening (New York, NY, 2013), p. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Historian David Engerman has emphasized that development aid ‘helped shape new patterns of relations between nations’. David C. Engerman, ‘Development politics and the Cold War’, Diplomatic History, 1 (2017), p. 1.
117 Packard, ‘Visions of postwar health and development and their impact on public health interventions in the developing world’, p. 94. See also Amanda Kay McVety, ‘Wealth and nations: the origins of international development assistance’, in Macekura and Manela, eds., The development century, p. 38.
118 Hoffman, Elizabeth Cobbs, All you need is love: the Peace Corps and the spirit of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1998), p. 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
119 Barnett, Empire of humanity, pp. 10, 12.
120 Julia F. Irwin, ‘The “development” of humanitarian relief: US disaster assistance operations in the Caribbean Basin, 1917–1931’, in Macekura and Manela, eds., The development century, pp. 40–57.
121 Barnett, Empire of humanity, pp. 143–5.
122 King, David P., God's internationalists: World Vision and the age of evangelical humanitarianism (Philadelphia, PA, 2019), pp. 110–11Google Scholar; Hilton, Matthew, ‘Charity and the end of empire: British non-governmental organizations, Africa, and international development in the 1960s’, American Historical Review, 123 (2018), p. 493CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wieters, Heike, ‘Reinventing the firm: from post-war relief to international humanitarian agency’, European Review of History, 23 (2016), pp. 116–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
123 Klein, Christina, Cold War orientalism: Asia in the middlebrow imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley, CA, 2003), p. 98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
124 Secrest to Johnson, 1 Sept. 1965, Hingson, Dr Robert, box 263, office files of John Macy, LBJL.
125 Francis J. Gavin and Mark Atwood Lawrence, ‘Introduction’, in Gavin and Lawrence, eds., Beyond the Cold War, p. 3.
126 Akira Iriye, ‘Introduction’, in Akira Iriye, ed., Global interdependence: the world after 1945 (Cambridge, MA, 2014), p. 4.
127 Iriye, Akira, Global community: the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world (Berkeley, CA, 2002), p. 192CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
128 Klein, Cold War orientalism, p. 85.
129 Carey, Hugh L., ‘A war we can win: health as a vector of foreign policy’, Bulletin N.Y. Academy of Medicine, 46 (1970), p. 347Google ScholarPubMed.
130 'Robert Hingson, founder of Brother's Brother Foundation’.
131 Wolfgang Saxon, ‘Robert Andrew Hingson, 83, a pioneer in public health’, New York Times, 12 Oct. 1996.
132 Abram to Macy, 11 Aug. 1965, Hingson, Dr Robert, box 263, office files of John Macy, LBJL.
133 Ronald Reagan, remarks, 30 June 1987, www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/063087b (accessed 15 Oct. 2018).
134 Alexandra Lord, ‘The peace gun’, 27 Aug. 2015, http://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/peace-gun (accessed 15 Oct. 2018).
135 Akira Iriye, ‘The transnationalization of humanity’, in Iriye, ed., Global interdependence, pp. 738–9; and Van Vleck, Jennifer, Empire of the air: aviation and the American ascendancy (Cambridge, MA, 2013), pp. 271, 279CrossRefGoogle Scholar.