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Authority vs. Democracy: Prussian Officials in the German Elections of 1898 and 1903

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2009

Brett Fairbairn
Brett Fairbairn
Affiliation:
University of Saskatchewan
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Extract

The suffrage for the German Reichstag had by the 1890s become the most potent symbol of democratic ideas in imperial Germany. ‘Universal, equal, secret, and direct’, as contemporaries described it, the Reichstag suffrage stood in contrast to restrictive state suffrages as a model of liberty and fairness. By the turn of the century, 70–80 per cent of adult male German citizens took advantage of their right to participate in this, the freest of all German political arenas.

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Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 33 , Issue 4 , December 1990 , pp. 811 - 838
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1990

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References

1 On these subjects see Fairbairn, Brett, ‘The German elections of 1898 and 1903’ (unpublished D.Phil, dissertation, University of Oxford, 1987), chs. 1–2Google Scholar.

2 On recruitment of Prussian officials and ties to the aristocracy see Röhl, John, ‘Higher civil servants in Germany, 1890–1900’, in Sheehan, J. (ed.), Imperial Germany (New York/London, 1976), pp. 142–3Google Scholar; also Kaelble, H., ‘Soziale Mobilität in Deutschland, 1900–1960’, in Kaelble, et al. , Probleme der Modemisierung in Deutschland. Sozialhistorische Studien zum 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Opladen, 1978), pp. 235–327Google Scholar.

3 See Barbara Vogel, ‘Beamtenkonservatismus. Sozial- und verfassungsgeschichtliche Voraussetzungen der Parteien in Preussen im frühen 19. Jahrhundert’, and Witt, Peter-Christian, ‘Konservatismus als “Überparteilichkeit”. Die Beamten der Reichskanzlei zwischen Kaiserreich und Weimarer Republik 1900–1933’, both in Stegmann, D., Wendt, B.-J., and Witt, P.-C. (eds.), Deutscher Konservatismus im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Bonn, 1983), pp. 1–31 and 231–80 respectivelyGoogle Scholar.

4 See Anderson, M. and Barkin, K., ‘The myth of the Puttkamer purge and the reality of the Kulturkampf: some reflections on the historiography of imperial Germany’, Journal of Modern History, LIV, 4 (1982), 647–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Concerning suppression of social democratic organization in the nationalized railroad industry, see Saul, K., ‘Konstitutioneller Staat und betriebliche Herrschaft. Zur Arbeiter- und Beamtenpolitik der preussischen Staatseisenbahnverwaltung 1890 bis 1914’, in Stegmann, D., Wendt, B.-J., and Witt, P.-C. (eds.), Industrielle Gesellschaft und politisches System (Bonn, 1978), PP. 315–36Google Scholar.

5 Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, Das Deutsche Kaiserreich 1871 bis 1918 (Göttingen, 1973)Google Scholar. The so-called ‘Wehlerite’ or ‘critical’ school, also called ‘new orthodoxy’, came under criticism – see for example Evans, Richard J., ‘Wilhelm II's Germany and the historians’, in Evans, (ed.), Society and politics in Wilhelmine Germany (London, 1978)Google Scholar – and has led to a spirited scholarly and sometimes not-so-scholarly debate (summarized in Retallack, James, ‘Social history with a vengeance? Some reactions to H.-U. Wehler's Das Deutsche Kaiserreich’, German Studies Review, VII, 3 (1984), 423–50)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Gescher had been elected on the first ballot as a German conservative candidate with 51% of the vote to the Centre candidate's 48%. As is explained below, complaints were more common, and the Reichstag's scrutiny more exacting, when results were close.

7 The text of the letter from the Landrat in Moers to the mayors is reproduced in the Reichstag committee report in Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des Reichstags, 9. Legislatur-Periode, 2. Session [herafter: SBVR 9. LP 2. S], 1893/1894, no. 129, as are the other documents quoted here.

8 Ibid.

9 SBVR 10. LP 1. S 1898/1900, no. 284.

10 SBVR 10. LP 1. S 1898/1900, no. 208.

11 SBVR 10. LP 1. S 1898/1900, no. 265; on related cases see also nos. 141, 142, 175, 192, 214.

12 See Leser, Guido, Untersuchungen über das Wahlprúfungsrecht des Deutschen Reichstags (Leipzig, 1908)Google Scholar.

13 Westarp, Kuno, Konservative Politik im letzten Jahrzehnt des Kaiserreiches (Berlin, 1935), I, 197Google Scholar.

14 SBVR 9. LP 5. S 1897/1898, no. 286. This does not include cases in which the deputy resigned voluntarily before the committee announced its ruling.

15 SBVR 10. LP 1. S 1898/1900, no. 142 (see also no. 384).

16 Hauptstaatsarchiv [hereafter: HSA] Hanover, Hann 174, Hann II, Nr. II; also Hessiches Staatsarchiv [SA] Marburg, Best. 180, Hersfeld Nr. 943.

17 The Pamphlet, Die Ungiltigkeit von Reichstagsmandaten und deren Verhütung, may be found in Geheimes Staatsarchiv [hereafter GSA] Berlin, Rep. 30, Nr. 595.

18 Berliner Tabeblatt [hereafter BT] 24 May 1898, evening edition.

19 ProfessorSiegfried, R., Die verschwiegende Wahlume (c. 1903)Google Scholar.

20 Suval, Stanley S., Electoral politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill, 1985), p. 50Google Scholar.

21 HSA Düss Reg., Düss Präs. 572, nos. 1–45, and GSA Berlin, Rep. 90, Nr. 128, nos. 233–54.

22 See the file on the Berliner Korrespondenz in Zentrales Staatsarchiv [hereafter ZSA] (Potsdam), Reichsministerium des Inneren [hereafter: RMdI] 15253.

23 Jagemann to Brauer 14, 19 and 25 Feb. 1898, in Fuchs, Walther P. (ed.), Grossherzog Friedrich I von Baden und die Reichspolitik 1871–1907 (Stuttgart, 1980), vol. IV, nos. 1810, 1812, 1815, respectivelyGoogle Scholar.

24 The memorandum of the minister of the interior may be found both in ZSA, I (Potsdam), RMdI 1541, nos. 5–11; and in ZSA, II (Merseburg), Rep. 151 HB, Nr. 890, nos. 95–101.

25 The written responses of other ministers, and the minutes of the discussion (ministry of state, 16 Apr. 1898) may also be found in ZSA, I (Potsdam), RMdI 15421.

26 Min. Int. to Oberpräsidenten, 5 May 1898, copy passed on to Regierungspräsident in Aachen, in HSA Düss Reg., Aachen Präs 679, no. 74. The same phrases were then used in the instructions from the RP to the LR: see RP to LR Düren, Malmedy, etc., 27 May 1898, in HSA Düss, ibid., no. 76; and Regierungspräsident in Hanover to Landrat, 16 May 1898, in HSA Hanover, Hann 174, Hann II, Nr. II. [The abbreviations OP, RP, LR will hereafter be used for Oberpräsident, Regierungspräsident, and Landrat.]

27 For example, the list of 49 friendly Rhineland papers attached to Min. Int. to OP, 5 May 1898, ibid.

28 See for example BT, 2 May 1903, evening edition.

29 See the detailed memorandum of 3 Apr. 1903 outlining the arrangements between the ministry of the interior and Mittler and Son for the distribution of the leaflets, in ZSA, II (Mersenburg), Rep. 77, CB tit. 867, Nr. 17, Adh. 1. The memo is followed by samples of the leaflets (some drafted or corrected by hand), correspondence with the Oberpräsidenten concerning their distribution, and lists of Vertrauensmänner identified by local officials as suitable recipients. In HSA Düss (as in other regional archives) may be found the correspondence between the RP and the LR organizing the distribution of the samples and the naming of the contact people; see HSA Düss Reg., Aachen Präs 815 and 8161.

30 Memo of 3 Apr. 1903, ibid.

31 See the correspondence concerning Posen in GSA Berlin, Rep. 30, Nr. 596.

32 The tally sheet is in ZSA, 11 (Merseburg), Rep. 77, CB tit. 867, Nr. 17, Adh. 11, no. 1.

33 See Romeyk, Horst, ‘Die politischen Wahlen im Regierungsbezirk Koblenz 1898–1918’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bonn 1968), pp. 125–6Google Scholar.

34 OP to LR Linden, 25 Jan. 1898, in HSA Hanover, Hann 174, Hann II, Nr. 11.

35 OP to RP in Düsseldorf, 16 June 1903, in HSA Düss Reg., Düss Präs 583, no. 240. The RP was to pass on these instructions orally, where necessary, to the Landräte.

36 OP to RP 6 Apr. 1903, in HSA Düss Reg., Aachen Präs 816I, no. 39.

37 RP to OP, 7 Apr. 1903, in ibid. no. 40.

38 OP to RP, 8 Apr. 1903, in ibid. no. 41, and RP to LR in Malmédy, Montjoie, etc., in ibid. nos. 42–6.

39 HSA Düss Reg., Düss Präs 584, nos. 5–6, 14–15, 21, 30, 41.

40 Oberbürgermeister of Elberfeld to RP, 14 Mar. 1903, in HSA Düss Reg., Düss Präs 585, no. 10; also his earlier report (28 Jan. 1903) in ibid. no. 3.

41 As in the well-known case of the Landräte dismissed for taking the BdL's side against the government in the Mittelland canal dispute in 1899; on this consult Horn, Hannelore, Der Kampf um den Bau des Mittellandkanals. Eine politologische Untersuchung über die Rolle eines wirtschaftlichen Interessenverbandes im Preussen Wilhelms II. (Cologne, 1964)Google Scholar.

42 On Tiedemann's candidacy in 1903 see LR Bromberg to RP [Tiedemann], 30 Mar. 1903, and his follow-up report of 28 Apr. 1903, in GSA Berlin, Rep. 30, Nr. 596.

43 Police report of SPD meeting in Bromberg on 18 Dec. 1902, in GSA Berlin, Rep. 30, Nr. 595.

44 RP to Polizei-Verwaltung der Stadt Bromberg, 9 Jan. 1903, and reply of 10 Jan. 1903, both in GSA Berlin, ibid.

45 Min. State 29 Jan. 1898 (minutes in GSA Berlin, Rep. 90, Nr. 306). For a sampling of the extensive press reporting of the case and of the correspondence back and forth between the RP and the Landräte in question see ZSA, II (Merseburg), Rep. 77, CB tit. 867, Nr. 16a, Adh. IX, nos. 2–39.

46 RP to LR Linden, 10 Mar. 1903, in HSA Hanover Hann, 174 Hann II, Nr. 11.

47 Min. State 29 July 1897 in ZSA, II (Merseburg), 90a AVIII I, d Nr. 3, nos. 234–8; also in GSA Berlin, Rep. 90, Nr. 128, nos. 230–2.

48 Min. State, 4 Mar. 1898, in BAK R43F/1817.

49 Ibid.

50 Min. State, 4 Mar. 1898.

51 Memo in ZSA, I (Potsdam), RMdI 14644, no. 64.

52 Min. State, 14 Mar. 1903 and 18 Mar. 1903, in BAK R43F/1792. On the constitutional arguments see Die Post, 30 Mar. 1903, ‘Zum Reichstagswahltermin.’

53 Bayerisches HSA Munich, MA 76274, Lerchenfeld to MdA, 16 Mar. 1903 and 25 Mar.1903

54 The SDP press heard of the aggressive Hammerstein proposal and attacked the government sharply, sticking to its (essentially correct) story despite vigorous denials and a disinformation campaign from the government. This episode, based only upon a rumour, may indicate in miniature the kind of scandal ministers feared if they really implemented a plan like Hammerstein's. See Vorwärts [hereafter VW] 31 Mar. 1903, 1 Apr. 1903, 4 Apr. 1903; Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 3 Apr. 1903; BT, 27 Mar. 1903 evening, 3 Apr. 1903. Many of these articles are collected in ZSA, I (Potsdam), RMdI 14644.

55 See Posadowsky's comments, Min. State, 4 Mar. 1898, in BAK R43F/1817; Lerchenfeld to MdA, 25 Mar. 1903, in Bayerisches HSA Munich, MA 76274.

56 Quotations from Kölnische Zeitung, 24 May 1898, morning edition, and Krefelder Zeitung, 2 May 1898, noon edition. See Grossherzog Friedrich I, nos. 1808 ff. for party leaders' opinions about the advantageousness or disadvantageousness of the fleet issue.

57 SBVR 9. LP 5. S 1897/1898, III, pp. 1818–27.

58 Min. State, 19 Apr. 1898 (II), in BAK R43F/1817. The question of whether the Centre was to be included was a sore point for Miquel's Sammlungspolitik, and he stressed its inclusion here undoubtedly to help win support for his policy. The general perception remained that the Sammlung was simply a ‘national’ electoral combination of the older type; the Badenese representative referred to ‘this Miquelian Sammlungs-Politik, by which the Centre is regarded as the excluded and fought-against part’ (Grossherzog Friedrich I, 1851, Jagemann to Brauer, 7 May 1898).

59 Min. State, ibid. Hohenlohe also wrote that he believed the SPD vote gain if agricultural prices increased (in this case meat prices) would be greater than the peasant disaffection if higher prices were not brought in, meaning the government could not afford to challenge the SPD on this kind of economic issue (Memoirs, entry for 7 Mar. 1900).

60 Udo Graf zu Stolberg-Wernigerode, writing to Bülow, quoted by Saul, Klaus, Staat, Industrie, Arbeiterbewegung im Kaiserreich, Zur Innen- und Aussenpolitik des wilhelminischen Deutschlands (Düsseldorf, 1974), p. 14Google Scholar.

61 In 1897 the Kaiser had already declared his support for the ‘protection of national labour of all productive estates (Stände) and strengthening of the Mittelstand’. This was interpreted by conservatives in 1898 as imperial sponsorship for electoral Sammlungspolitik. (See Staatsbürger Zeitung, 17 May 1898, ‘Die Politik der Sammlung im Lichte der Wahkampf’).

62 Min. State, 19 Apr. 1898.

63 Ibid.

64 Report by RP to OP on by-election, 4 June 1902, in HSA Hanover, Hann 122a I, Nr. 13. nos247–51.

65 Ibid.

66 ‘Significant’ candidacies are counted as those having received at least 5% of the vote, while a ‘chance of victory’ for the governmental parties was arbitrarily judged as their receiving (together) a proportion of the vote potentially large enough to have carried one of them into a second ballot (this could be as little as 20% where the other parties' votes were fragmented). ‘Agrarians’ were counted here as agrarian league only. See Fairbairn ‘German elections’, chs. 4 and 5.

67 See Fairbairn, ‘German elections’, appendix one.

68 Levysohn, Arthur, ‘Politische Wochenschau’, BT, 29 05 1898, p. 1Google Scholar; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 24 Feb. 1903.

69 National-Zeitung, 8 June 1898; see also Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 June 1893, 3rd morning edition, and Grossherzog Friedrich I, no. 1856 (Jagemann, to Reck, , 9 06 1898)Google Scholar for discussion of the intention of the leak. Many clippings on the subject are collected in ZSA, I (Potsdam), RLB PA 5076.

70 BAK R43F/17, telegram from Posadowsky to Hohenlohe, 5 June 1898. The published form of the statement appeared in virtually every major newspaper on 8 June 1898.

71 Kölnische Volkszeitung, 8 June 1898; Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 June 1898; Kreuzzeitung, 12 June 1898, morning edition, p. 1.

72 VW, 8 June 1898, p. 1; Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 June 1893, 3rd morning edition, p. 1 (quotes reports of other papers).

73 For Hohenlohe's letter and correspondence concerning it with his son, with Miquel, and with Schönaich-Carolath, see Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Fürst Chlodwig zu, Denkwürdigkeiten der Reichskanzleizeit (Stuttgart, 1931), pp. 445–50Google Scholar.

74 Staatsbürger Zeitung, 12 June 1898; also BT, 12 May 1898, Morning edition, and 13 May 1898, 1. Beiblatt.

75 Gustav Stockmann to the Vice-President of the Min. State (Miquel), 25 June 1898, in GSA Berlin, Rep. 90 128, nos. 262–3. On Stockmann's political service to the Conservative party see the testimonial on his retirement dated 13 Apr. 1899, in ibid. nos. 272–3.

76 BT, 26 June 1898.

77 Bachem papers, Hauptarchiv der Stadt Köln 1006, Nr. 197 and Nr. 198, memo of 19 June 1903 and related material.

78 Quoted in BT, 2 May 1903, evening edition, pp. 1–2 and in Rheinisch-Westfälisches Staatsarchiv Münster Oberpräs 2681/2–10.

79 ‘Wen wählen wir?’, like other leaflets in the series (which included ‘Sind Industrie und Landwirtschaft Gegner?’, ‘Was will der Ruf zur Sammlung?’, ‘Freisinn, Sozialdemokratie und Landwirtschaft’, and others) can be found in many of the ‘secret’ files of Prussian officials. There is a fairly complete collection in HSA Düss. Reg., Aachen Präs 815.

80 Grossherzog Friedrich I, nos. 1847 and 1859.

81 Correspondenz des Bundes der Landwirte, 5 May 1903; Kreuzzeitung, 14 Apr. 1903, evening edition, p. 1 (also 14 June 1903, p. 1); BT, 7 May 1903, morning edition, p. 1. For other press and political reactions to the government's ‘passive’ bearing, ‘lack of courage and energy’, and ‘directionlessness’ in 1903 see Saul, , Staat, Industrie, Arbeiterbewegung, pp. 13–15Google Scholar.

82 See the argument in Kölnische Volkszeitung, 26 Mar. 1903, morning edition, and contrast Miquel's comments to the Min. State on 19 Apr. 1898 (above).

83 Kreuzzeitung, 2 May 1903, evening edition, p. 1 (‘Die Reichstagswahlen in Baiern’) and 14 June 1903, morning edition, p. 1 (‘Die innere Politik der Woche’).

84 Quotations from Jagemann, to Brauer, , 14 03 1903, in Grossherzog Friedrich I, no. 2402Google Scholar; BT, 17 Apr. 1903, morning edition; Rheinisch-Westfälische Zeitung, 17 June 1903, evening edition; and Deutsche Tageszeitung, 13 Dec. 1902.

85 VW, 27 June 1903.