Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T05:21:09.876Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Repairing the entente cordiale And The New Diplomacy*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2009

Alan Cassels
Affiliation:
McMaster University, Ontario

Extract

At the close of World War I two schools of thought about the future conduct of international relations emerged into plain view. On the one hand, the traditionalists presumed that the principles and practices of pre-1914 diplomacy could and should be sustained. This implied a routine of continual competition among the sovereign nation states, the anarchy of which was mitigated only by the collective fear of hegemony by one state (the mechanism of the balance of power) and by a sense of belonging to a common civilization (the old Concert of Europe). Tacitly accepted as the final arbiter of vital questions was the instrument of war. On the other hand, the First World War had provided ample grounds for a swingeing critique of Realpolitik when practised in an age of mass armies and technological warfare.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 This duality is the theme of classic, E. H. Carr'sTwenty years' crisis, 1919–1939 (London, 1939).Google Scholar

2 Mayer, A. J., Politics and diplomacy of peacemaking: containment and counterrevolution at Versailles, 1918–1919 (New York, 1967)Google Scholar; Ritter, G., ‘The Second International: attempts to recreate the Socialist International and to influence the peace treaties’, Europa, 11, 1 (1978), 1133.Google Scholar

3 Taylor, A. J. P., The trouble makers: dissent over foreign policy, 1792–1939 (London, 1957).Google Scholar

4 Cline, C. A., Recruits to Labour: the British Labour party, 1914–1931 (Syracuse, 1963), pp. 6889.Google Scholar

5 Marquand, D., Ramsay MacDonald (London, 1976), pp. 167–74, 299–300Google Scholar; Swartz, M., The Union of Democratic Control in British politics during the First World War (Oxford, 1971), pp. 1821.Google Scholar

6 Manchester Guardian, 31 Jan., 1924, including translation of MacDonald interview in Le Quotidien, 27 Jan., 1924.

7 Krieger, W., Labour Party und Weimarer Republik: Ein Beitrag zur Aussenpolitik der britischen Arbeiterwegung zwischen Programmatik und Parteitaktik, 1918–1924 (Bonn, 1978)Google Scholar. See also Naylor, J. F., Labour's international policy (London, 1969), pp. 15Google Scholar; Taylor, , Trouble makers, pp. 174–80Google Scholar; Windrich, E., Labour's foreign policy (Stanford, 1952), pp. 31–3.Google Scholar

8 Gordon, M. R., Conflict and consensus in Labour's foreign policy (Stanford, 1969), pp. 54–6Google Scholar, for a summary of Labour's ‘rank and file’ sense of betrayal; see also Lyman, R., The first Labour government (London, 1957), pp. 164–5, 180–1Google Scholar. Direct criticism of MacDonald's subservience to diplomatic tradition in Angell, Sir Norman, After all (London, 1951), pp. 239–40Google Scholar; Connell, J. (pseud. J. H. Robertson), The ‘Office’: a study of British foreign policy and its makers, 1919–1951 (London, 1958), pp. 60–1Google Scholar; Wedgwood, J. C., Memoirs of a fighting life (London, 1940), pp. 186–7Google Scholar; Weir, L. M., The tragedy of Ramsay MacDonald (London, 1938), pp. 147–51.Google Scholar

9 Quoted in Pope-Hennessy, J., Lord Crewe: likeness of a Liberal (London, 1955), p. 160.Google Scholar

10 St Aulaire to Poincaré, 25 Jan. 1924, Archives du M[inistère des] A[ffaires[ E[trangères[, série, ‘Europe, 1918–1929: Grande Bretagne’, vol. 56, nos. 74–6.

11 Viscount, D'Abernon, An ambassador of peace (3 vols., London, 1929–1930), II, 111–12Google Scholar; Miquel, P., Poincaré (Paris, 1961), pp. 467–8Google Scholar; Nicolson, H., Curzon: the last phase, 1919–1925 (London, 1934), pp. 273–4Google Scholar; Comte de St, Aulaire, Confession d'un vieux diplomate (Paris, 1953), pp. 656–76Google Scholar; Lord, Vansittart, The mist procession (London, 1958), pp. 290–1.Google Scholar

12 St Aulaire to Poincaré, 11 Feb. 1924, M.A.E., vol. 56, nos. 159–60. On the unmasking of French meddling in British politics, see Andrew, C. M., ‘The British secret service and Anglo-Soviet relations in the 1920s’, part 1, Historical Journal, xx, 3 (1977), 395Google Scholar. For background of Palatinate question, see McDougall, W. A., France's Rhineland policy, 1914–1924: the last bid for a balance of power in Europe (Princeton, 1978), ch. VIII; Clive's findings on Parl[iamentary] Deb[ates], H[ouse] of C[ommons], 5th series, vol. 169, 21 Jan. 1924, cols. 485–6.Google Scholar

13 T.U.C. memo., 29 Jan. 1924, F.O. 371/9807, C2079/903/18; Ponsonby to MacDonald, 2 Feb. 1924, F.O. 800/227, Public Record Office. All unpublished British documents cited are located in the P.R.O. unless otherwise specified.

14 E.g. Mew Leader, New Statesman, Ruhr Bulletin, quoted by Gilbert, M., The roots of appeasement (London, 1966), pp. 106–7.Google Scholar

15 Duly noted by French diplomats, Jusserand to Poincaré, 8 Apr. 1923, M.A.E. vol. 40, no. 8.

16 Greene, G., A sort of life (London, 1971), pp. 136–43.Google Scholar

17 Cairns, J. C., ‘A nation of shopkeepers in search of a suitable France, 1919—1940’, American Historical Review, LXXIX, 3 (1974), 715–23Google Scholar; Gilbert, , Roots of appeasement, pp. 96102Google Scholar. For alarm in British diplomatic circles at French dominion, see D'Abernon, , Ambassador of peace, 11, 22–4Google Scholar; Headlam-Morley, J., Studies in diplomatic history (London, 1930), pp. 181–2.Google Scholar

18 The Times, 4 Feb. and 3 Mar. 1924, for the texts of both MacDonald's letters and Poincaré's replies.

19 Part. Deb., H. of C., 5th series, vol. 169, 12 Feb. 1924, col. 771.

20 MacDonald to Lord Thomson, 10 Mar. 1924, F.O. 800/219; see also analogous letter under same date to Viscount Chelmsford, first lord of the Admiralty, ibid.

21 Memo, by Laroche, 20 Dec. 1923, M.A.E. vol. 40, nos. 73–5; see also further Franco-Czech exchanges regarding the advent of Labour, memo, by Peretti de la Rocca, 25 Jan. 1924, memos. by Laroche, 29 Jan. and 20 Feb. 1924, Couget to Poincaré, 31 Jan. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 56, nos 64–73, 99–101, 173.

22 Thomas to Poincaré, 25 Jan. 1924, Poincaré papers, Bibliothèque Nationale, vol. 26, nos. 476–7.

23 St Aulaire to Poincaré, 30 Jan., 7 and 11 Feb. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 56, nos. 92, 141–4, 145–6; St Aulaire, Confession, pp. 690–2.

24 Crewe to MacDonald, 10 Feb. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33, Cambridge University Library. The prime minister accepted the caution graciously, 11 Feb. 1924, ibid.

25 Mendl to Tyrrell, 26 Feb. 1924, F.O. 800/220; Crewe to MacDonald, 9 Mar. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33. On French economic difficulties, see Schuker, S. A., The end of French predominance in Europe: the financial crisis of 1924 and the adoption of the Dawes Plan (Chapel Hill, 1976), chaps, II-IV.Google Scholar

26 Léon Blum advice conveyed by Brailsford to MacDonald, 3 Feb. 1924, F.O. 800/218; Joseph Paul-Boncour opinion conveyed by Phipps to Crowe, 9 Feb. 1924, F.O. 371/9812, C2279/1288/18.

27 MacDonald to D'Abernon, 22 Mar. 1924, F.O. 800/219.

28 Report of the expert committees appointed by the Reparation Commission (P[arliamentary] P[apers], 1924, XVII), Cmd. 2105, p. 13.

29 Cabinet conclusions, 10 Apr. 1924, CAB 23/48; Turner, H. A., Jr., Stresemann and the politics of the Weimar republic (Princeton, 1963), pp. 163–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

30 Crewe to MacDonald, 27 Apr. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33; see also St Aulaire, Confession, PP. 694–5.

31 Crewe to MacDonald, 28 Apr. 1924, F.O. 371/9730, C6960/32/18; Crewe to MacDonald, 7 May 1924, Crewe papers, C/33.

32 MacDonald to Crewe, 23 Apr. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33.

33 St Aulaire to Poincaré, 6 May 1924, M.A.E. vol. 57, nos. 61–4.

34 Treasury memo., 5 May 1924, F.O. 371/9807, C7377/903/18.

35 MacDonald to Crewe, 23 Apr. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33.

36 MacDonald to Poincaré, 14 May 1924, ibid.

37 Mendl to Tyrrell, 3 June 1924, F.O. 800/220. On Mendl's status and role, see Gladwyn, C., Tht Paris embassy (London, 1976), pp. 198–9.Google Scholar

38 Mendl to Tyrrell, 13 May 1924, F.O. 800/220.

39 Mendl to Tyrrell, 3 and 17 June 1924, ibid. O n Herriot's personal and political nature, see Lapie, P. O., Herriot (Paris, 1967)Google Scholar; Soulié, M., La vie politigue d'Edouard Herriot (Paris, 1962).Google Scholar

40 Words spoken by the Belgian socialist, Emile Vandervelde, who summed up the hopes of the democratic left across Europe, quoted in Graham to MacDonald, 14 May 1924, F.O. 800/218. On the affinity of British and French radicals for each other, see Paul-Boncour, J., Entre deux guerres (3 vols., Paris, 1945–6), 11, 97–8Google Scholar; Wolfers, A., Britain and France between two wars (New York, 1940), pp. 86–8.Google Scholar

41 Drummond to Waterhouse (MacDonald's private secretary), 9 June 1924, MacDonald to Waterhouse, 14 June 1924, MacDonald papers, 1/16.

42 Bariéty, J., Les relations franco-allemandes après la première guerre mondiale (Paris, 1977), pp. 374–9.Google Scholar

43 C.I.D. minutes, 1 July 1924, CAB 2/4; Parl. Deb., H. of C., 5th series, vol. 175, 7 July 1924, cols. 1782–6.

44 Minutes of MacDonald-Herriot talks, 21 and 22 June 1924, F.O. 371/9749, C10427/70/18, F.O. 371/9751, C111976/70/18; French procès-verbaux in Herriot papers, vol. 22, nos. 160–218, Archives du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères.

45 Suarez, G., Une nuit chez Cromwell (Paris, 1930), written ‘avec la complicité amicale de M. Edouard Herriot'.Google Scholar

46 L'Indépendence Belge, 24 June 1924; memos. by Herriot, 24 and 26 June 1924, Herriot papers, vol. 22, nos. 62–3, 72.

47 Part. Deb., H. of C, 5th series, vol. 175, 26 June and 7 July 1924, cols. 593, 1807; see also cabinet conclusions, 2 July 1924, CAB 23/48.

48 Crowe to Peretti de la Rocca, 24 June 1924, Correspondence concerning the conference which it is proposed to hold in London on 16th July, 1924, to consider the measures necessary to bring the Dawes Plan into operation (P.P. 1924, XXVII), Cmd. 2184, p. 5.

49 Mendl to Tyrrell, 2 July 1924, F.O. 800/220; Crewe to MacDonald, 3 July 1924, F.O. 371/9731, C10677/32/18. On the leak of information, see Schuker, End of French predominance, pp. 258–9.

50 Herriot to St Aulaire, 3 July 1924, Herriot papers, vol. 22, nos. 78–9; memo, by Crowe, 6 July 1924, Phipps to MacDonald, 6 July 1924, Crewe to MacDonald, 7 July 1924, F.O. 371/9849, C10964, 10907, 10794/10794/18.

51 Notes of Herriot-MacDonald talks, 8 and 9 July 1924, F.O. 371/9849, C12031, 11468, 11469/10794/18; for final communiqué, see Franco-British memorandum of 9th July, 1924, concerning the application of the Dawes scheme (P.P. 1924, xxvu), Cmd. 2191.

52 Journal Officiel, Debats Parlementaires (Sénat), 11 July 1924, p. 1059.

53 Best secondary accounts, Bariéty, Relations franco-allemandes, chaps, XIII-XX; Marquand, MacDonald, pp. 342–51; Schuker, End of French predominance, ch. VIII; Soulié, Vie d'Herriot, pp. 167–79. Eyewitness impressions in Roskill, S., Hankey: man of secrets (3 vols., London, 1970-4), II, 367–75Google Scholar; Herriot, , Jadis (2 vols., Paris, 1948–52), 11, 152–61Google Scholar; Aulaire, St, Confession, pp. 718–28Google Scholar; Snowden, P., An autobiography (2 vols., London, 1934), 11, 670–9Google Scholar; and for latter part of conference Sutton, E. (ed. and trans.), Gustav Stresemann: his diaries, letters, papers (3 vols., London, 1935–40), 1, 369409. Most complete documentary record in CAB 29/103–4.Google Scholar

54 Phipps to MacDonald, 29 Aug. 1924, F.O. 371/9813, C13819/1288/18.

55 Summaries of Paris press, Mendl to Tyrrell, 30 and 31 July, 1 Aug. 1924, F.O. 800/220.

56 For Herriot's feelings, Soulié, Vie d'Herriot, pp. 157–9, 37–1 427; for MacDonald's, Marquand, MacDonald, p. 338; Wilson, T. (ed.), Political diaries C. P. Scott, 1911–1928 (London, 1970). PP. 459–60.Google Scholar

57 See extracts from MacDonald's diary quoted in Marquand, MacDonald, pp. 347, 349–50.

58 France, Documents diplomatiques: Conférence de Londres, 16 juillet - 16 août 1924 (Paris, 1925), P. 94.Google Scholar

59 Herriot to MacDonald, 11 Aug. 1924, MacDonald to Herriot, 13 Aug. 1924, F.O. 371/9819, C12870/2048/18.

60 Cecil, R., A great experiment (London, 1941), pp. 138–41, 151–3Google Scholar; Walters, F. P., A history of the League of Nations (2 vols., London, 1952), 1, 224–8.Google Scholar

61 MacDonald to Hume-Williams, 11 Aug. 1924, MacDonald papers, 1/183; Angell, After all, p. 241. On Labour's prevarications over League sanctions, see Winkler, H., ‘The emergence of a Labour foreign policy in Great Britain, 1918–1929’, Journal of Modern History, XXVIII, 3 (1956), 247–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

62 C.I.D. minutes, 3 Apr. 1924, CAB 2/4; Cabinet conclusions, 30 May 1924, CAB 23/48. See also Orde, A., Great Britain and international security, 1920–1926 (London, 1978), pp. 3646.Google Scholar

63 League of Nations, Official Journal, 5th Assembly, Debates (Geneva, 1924), pp. 41–5, 57–64.Google Scholar

64 Memo, by Troutbeck, 9 Sept. 1924, F.O. 371/9819, C14272/2048/18; for confirmation of French interpretation of the Protocol, see Crewe to MacDonald, 24 Sept. 1924, F.O. 371/9819, C14969/2048/18; Herriot to Clauzel, 21 Sept. 1924, Herriot to Briand, 24 Sept. 1924, Herriot papers, vol. 18, nos. 151–4, 155—7.

65 Walters, History of the League, 1, 272–6; Cabinet conclusions, 29 Sept. 1924, CAB 23/48.

66 Parmoor to MacDonald, 30 Dec. 1923, and n.d. Jan. 1924, MacDonald papers, 2/2; Parmoor to MacDonald, 12 Aug., 29 Sept., 1 and 3 Oct. 1924, ibid., 1/200.

67 St Aulaire to Herriot, 9 and 17 Oct. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 57, nos. 162–6, 167–76.

68 ‘Fausse depuis l'avenement du Cartel, ma situation le devenait tous les jours davantage’, apostrophized St Aulaire in a bitter denunciation of the manner of his dismissal (Confession, p. 746 ff.).

69 Marquand, MacDonald, p. 356, though the contention is vitiated somewhat by the prior documentation (ibid., p. 351 ff.) of MacDonald's lukewarm attitude to the League.

70 Orde, , Britain and international security, pp. 7080.Google Scholar

71 Central Dept. memo., 11 Nov. 1924, F.O. 371/9820, C16913/2048/18; memo, by Massigli, 15 Nov. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 71, no. 159–65.

72 Mendl to Tyrrell, 15 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1924, F.O. 800/220; Crewe to Chamberlain, 9 Nov., 1924, Crewe papers, C/8.

73 Montille (chargé d'affaires in London) to Herriot, 7 Nov. and 11 Dec. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 33, no. 167–74, vol. 71, nos. 202–6.

74 C.I.D. minutes, 20 Feb. 1925, CAB 2/4.

75 Jacobson, J., Locarno diplomacy (Princeton, 1972), pp. 1226Google Scholar; Johnson, D., ‘The Locarno treates’, in Waites, N. (ed.), Troubled neighbours (London, 1971), pp. 105–17.Google Scholar

76 Minute by Chamberlain, 6 Jan. 1925, circular by Chamberlain to British representatives abroad, 19 Jan. 1925, F.O. 371/10540, W11368/631/17; memo, by Herriot of talk with. Chamberlain, 5 Dec. 1924, M.A.E. vol. 5, no. 229–30; circular by Herriot to French representatives abroad, 26 Jan. 1925, Herriot papers, vol. 14, no. 122.

77 Memo, by Crowe, 15 Dec. 1924, Chamberlain to Crewe, 17 Dec. 1924, F.O. 371/10540, W10951, 11016/631/17.

78 Minute by MacDonald, 24 June 1924, F.O. 371/9818, C10067/2048/18.

79 MacDonald to Villard, 12 Aug. 1924, quoted in Venkataramani, M. S., ‘Ramsay MacDonald and Britain's domestic politics and foreign relations, 1919–1931’, Political Studies, VIII, 3 (1960), 239.Google Scholar

80 Quoted in Taylor, Trouble makers, p. 144.

81 Mendl to Tyrrell, 13 Oct. 1924, F.O. 800/220.

82 Phraseology that of MacDonald's son, Malcolm, MacDonald, Titans and others (London, 1972), p. 50Google Scholar; in the same vein, , Salter, J. A., Personality in politics (London, 1947), pp. 54–6Google Scholar; Williams, F., Fifty years' march (London, 1950), pp. 307–8.Google Scholar

83 After working with the F.O., MacDonald was at pains to refute the leftist charge that the Office was subversive of Labour's foreign policy (MacDonald to Parmoor, 13 Aug. 1924, MacDonald papers, 1/200; memo, by MacDonald for T.U.C. - Labour party joint international department, 25 July 1925, ibid., 5/132). See also testimony to the warm relationship which was established between MacDonald and Lord Crewe in their exchange of letters, 2 and 6 Nov. 1924, Crewe papers, C/33.

84 On the continuity of British foreign policy after 1924, see Taylor, A. J. P., Origins of the Second World War (London, 1961), pp. 52–3Google Scholar; on the continuity of French diplomacy, see Schuker, , End of French predominance, pp. 390–3.Google Scholar

85 Chamberlain to Vaughan, 10 Nov. 1925, Medlicott, W. N. et al. (eds.), Documents on British foreign policy, 1919–1939, series 1A, vol. 1 (London, 1966), no. 83.Google Scholar