¹ §1 of ‘Vorschriften welche bey Aufnahme neuer Landesmitglieder des n:ö: Ritterstandes zur genauen Richtschnur zu nehmen sind’, Niederösterreichisches Landesarchiv, St. Pölten (NÖLA), Ritterstandsarchiv (RA), A i, fo. 262r.

² Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 19 and 27 Apr. 1808, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, pp. 208–9 and 216–18.

³ Albert Sicroff, Les controverses des statuts de ‘pureté de sang’ en Espagne du XVe au XVIIe siècle (Paris, 1960), pp. 32–6 and 135–9.

⁴ For the Nuremberg laws, see Rainer Faupel and Klaus Eschen, Gesetzliches Unrecht in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus, Veröffentlichungen der Potsdamer Juristischen Gesellschaft, iii (Baden-Baden, 1997).

⁵ For a comparative perspective on the Lower Austrian patent of toleration in the context of the patents for the dynasty's other lands, see Christoph Lind, ‘Juden in den habsburgischen Ländern, 1670–1848’, in Eveline Brugger et al., Geschichte der Juden in Österreich, Österreichische Geschichte, ed. Herwig Wolfram (Vienna, 2006), pp. 339–446, at 294–7.

⁶ Ibid., p. 408.

⁷ More than a century also passed before the next such statute for nobles. It was introduced in 1920 by the Deutsche Adelsgenossenschaft (German Association of Nobles) at a time, however, in which the nobility in Germany had ceased to exist constitutionally. Stephan Malinowski, Vom König zum Führer: Deutscher Adel und Nationalsozialismus (Berlin, 2003), pp. 336–8.

⁸ For the ‘Christlich-deutsche Tischgesellschaft’ in Berlin, see Klaus L. Berghahn, Grenzen der Toleranz: Juden und Christen im Zeitalter der Aufklärung (2nd and revised edn, Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 2001), pp. 284–92; and Deborah Hertz, Jewish high society in old regime Berlin (New Haven and London, 1988), p. 273. For similar rules in other early patriotic societies, see Eleonore Sterling, Er ist wie Du: Aus der Frühgeschichte des Antisemitismus in Deutschland (1815–1850) (Munich, 1956), pp. 164–5. The rule in the National Casino in Budapest mentioned in Jacob Katz, Vom Vorurteil zur Vernichtung: Der Antisemitismus 1700–1933, translated from the English by Ulrike Berger (Munich, 1989), p. 226.

⁹ For the weakness of the Fourth Estate in early modern Lower Austria, see Baltzarek, Franz, ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte des vierten Standes in Niederösterreich: Eine vergleichende Stadtgeschichtsuntersuchung mit besonderer Auswertung der Gaisruckschen Städteordnungen von 1745–1747’, Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs, 23 (1970), pp. 64–104Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Max Sebastián Hering Torres, Rassismus in der Vormoderne: Die ‘Reinheit des Blutes’ im Spanien der Frühen Neuzeit, Campus Forschung, cmxi (Frankfurt and New York, 2006).

¹¹ David Bell, The cult of the nation in France: inventing nationalism, 1680–1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2001), p. 5.

¹² For the various meanings of ‘nation’ in early modern Europe, see Hagen Schulze, Staat und Nation in der europäischen Geschichte (2nd and revised edn, Munich, 1995), pp. 108–50.

¹³ For this process in France, see Bell, The cult of the nation. For the meaning of imperial patriotism in the late Holy Roman Empire, see Anke Waldmann, ‘Reichspatriotismus im letzten Drittel des 18. Jahrhunderts’, in: Otto Dann et al., eds., Patriotismus und Nationsbildung am Ende des Heiligen Römischen Reiches, Kölner Beiträge zur Nationsforschung, ix (Cologne, 2003), pp. 19–61; and T. C. W. Blanning, The culture of power and the power of culture: old regime Europe, 1660–1789 (Oxford and New York, 2002), pp. 232–65. For the changing understanding of Austria in the eighteenth century, see Grete Klingenstein, ‘Was bedeuten “Österreich” und “österreichisch” im 18. Jahrhundert? Eine begriffsgeschichtliche Studie’, in Richard G. Plaschka, Gerald Stourzh, and Jan Paul Niederkorn, eds., Was heißt Österreich? Inhalt und Umfang des Österreichbegriffs vom 10. Jahrhundert bis heute, Archiv für österreichische Geschichte, cxxxvi (Vienna, 1995), pp. 149–220. An English-language version exists: Grete Klingenstein, ‘The meanings of “Austria” and “Austrian” in the eighteenth century’, in Robert Oresko et al., eds., Royal and republican sovereignty in early modern Europe (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 423–78. For Belgium, Johannes Koll, ‘Die belgische Nation’: Patriotismus und Nationalbewußtsein in den südlichen Niederlanden im späten 18. Jahrhundert, Niederlande-Studien, xxxiii (Münster, New York, Munich, and Berlin, 2003).

¹⁴ For an excellent discussion of the problem of national historiographical traditions and the history of nation-states, see the analysis by Arnout Mertens in ‘Nobles into Belgians: the Brabant pedigreed nobility between the ancien régime and the nation-state, 1750–1850’ (Ph.D. dissertation, European University Institute, 2007), pp. 9–20.

¹⁵ The best study of Austrian nationalism remains André Robert, L'idée nationale autrichienne et les guerres de Napoléon: l'apostolat du baron du Hormayr et le salon de Caroline Pichler (Paris, 1933).

¹⁶ Rogers Brubaker, Ethnicity without groups (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2004), p. 79.

¹⁷ Bell, The cult of the nation, p. 5. See also Mertens, ‘Nobles into Belgians’, p. 2.

¹⁸ Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (rev. edn, London and New York, 1991).

¹⁹ Georg Mosse, ‘Die Juden im Zeitalter des modernen Nationalismus’, in Peter Alter et al., eds., Die Konstruktion der Nation gegen die Juden (Munich, 1999), pp. 15–25; Berghahn, Genzen der Toleranz.

²⁰ Michael Jeismann, ‘Der letzte Feind: Die Nation, die Juden und der negative Universalismus’, in Alter et al., eds., Die Konstruktion der Nation, pp. 173–90.

²¹ Christine L. Mueller, The Styrian Estates, 1740–1848: a century of transition (New York and London, 1987).

²² The Austrian Estates have traditionally been regarded as having been viable, at the latest, until the reform-era, much as the nobility's position in France was earlier seen as having been destroyed by Louis XIV. See Hassinger, Herbert, ‘Die Landstände der österreichischen Länder. Zusammensetzung, Organisation und Leistung im 16.–18. Jahrhundert’, Jahrbuch für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich, new series, 36 (1964), pp. 989–1035Google Scholar. An incomplete overview of literature on the Estates in the Austrian territories found in Kersten Krüger, Die landständische Verfassung, Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte, ed. Lothar Gall, lxvii (Munich, 2003), pp. 103–4, 111–20, and 129–30. Wolfgang Neugebauer has discussed the question of continuity in Estates' history through periods of great upheaval. See Neugebauer, Wolfgang, ‘Landstände im Heiligen Römischen Reich an der Schwelle der Moderne: Zum Problem von Kontinuität und Diskontinuität um 1800’, Historisches Jahrbuch (2003), pp. 51–86Google Scholar. William Beik, Absolutism and society in seventeenth-century France: state power and provincial aristocracy in Languedoc (Cambridge, 1985); James B. Collins, Classes, estates, and order in early modern Brittany (Cambridge, 1994); Marie-Laure Legay, Les états provinciaux dans la construction de l'état modern aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, Travaux du Grand Siècle, xx (Geneva, 2001); and Julian Swann, Provincial power and absolute monarchy: the Estates General of Burgundy, 1661–1790 (Cambridge, 2003).

²³ Godsey, William D. Jr, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation im österreichischen Absolutismus, ca. 1620–1848’, Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung, 33 (2006), pp. 197–239Google Scholar.

²⁴ Hillay Zmora, Monarchy, aristocracy, and the state in Europe, 1300–1800 (London and New York, 2001), pp. 90–1.

²⁵ Schulze, Staat und Nation, p. 117.

²⁶ The nobility's understanding of itself as the ‘political Estates’ was evident in curial debates very late. See the minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of lords, 18 Oct. 1832 (remarks by Prince Palm), NÖLA, Herrenstandsarchiv (HA), Lade xliv, carton 58.

²⁷ On the traditional rights of the diets, including the right to be consulted, see William D. Godsey, Jr, ‘Herrschaft und politische Kultur im Habsburgerreich: Die niederösterreichische Erbhuldigung (ca. 1648–1848)’, in Roland Gehrke, ed., Aufbrüche in die Moderne: Frühparlamentarismus zwischen altständischer Ordnung und modernem Konstitutionalismus, 1750–1850: Schlesien – Deutschland – Mitteleuropa, Neue Forschungen zur schlesischen Geschichte, ed. Joachim Bahlcke and Norbert Conrads (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 2005), pp. 141–77, at pp. 158–61.

²⁸ Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger, Vormünder des Volkes? Konzepte landständischer Repräsentation in der Spätphase des Alten Reiches, Historische Forschungen, lxiv (Berlin, 1994), pp. 229–31.

²⁹ For Bohemia, see Wolfgang Neugebauer, Standschaft als Verfassungsproblem: Die historischen Grundlagen ständischer Partizipation in ostmitteleuropäischen Regionen (Goldbach, 1995), p. 35; for Carniola, see Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, p. 227.

³⁰ Peter Sahlins, Unnaturally French: foreign citizens in the old regime and after (Ithaca and London, 2004).

³¹ Ibid., pp. 47–8.

³² Hannelore Burger, ‘Passwesen und Staatsbürgerschaft’, in Waldtraud Heindl and Edith Saurer with the assistance of Hannelore Burger and Harald Wendelin, eds., Grenze und Staat: Paßwesen, Staatsbürgerschaft, Heimatrecht und Fremdengesetzgebung in der österreichischen Monarchie, 1750–1867 (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 2000), pp. 1–172, at p. 127.

³³ Court resolution, 19 Apr. 1787, in Joseph Kropatschek, Handbuch aller unter der Regierung des Kaisers Joseph des II. für die K. K. Erbländer ergangenen Verordnungen und Gesetze in einer sistematischen Verbindung, x (Vienna, 1787), p. 319. Court decree, 27 Oct. 1743, in Sammlung aller K. K. Verordnungen und Gesetze vom Jahre 1740 bis 1780, die unter der Regierung des Kaisers Joseph des II. theils noch ganz bestehen, theils zum Theile abgeändert sind, als ein Hilfs- und Ergänzungsbuch zu dem Handbuche aller unter der Regierung des Kaisers Joseph des II. für die K. K. Erbländer ergangenen Verordnungen und Gesetze in einer chronologischen Ordnung, i (Vienna, 1786), p. 13.

³⁴ The regulations from 1785 relative to the ceremony associated with the ‘oath as a subject’ for Jews mentioned in Johann Ludwig Ehrenreich Graf von Barth-Bartenheim, Die politischen Rechtsverhältnisse der österreichischen Staatsbewohner, mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf das Erzherzogthum Oesterreich unter der Enns, Das Ganze der österreichischen politischen Administration mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf das Erzherzogthum Oesterreich unter der Enns, i (Vienna, 1838). A brief, recent introduction to the subject of Jews and citizenship before 1848 is Hannelore Burger and Harald Wendelin, ‘Vertreibung, Rückkehr und Staatsbürgerschaft: Die Praxis der Vollziehung des Staatsbürgerschaftsrechts an den österreichischen Juden’, in Dieter Kolonovits et al., Staatsbürgerschaft und Vertreibung, Veröffentlichungen der Österreichischen Historikerkommission. Vermögensentzug während der NS-Zeit sowie Rückstellungen und Entschädigungen seit 1945 in Österreich, ed. Clemens Jabloner et al., vii (Vienna and Munich, 2004), pp. 239–501, especially at pp. 307–23. For the naturalization of Jews in old regime France, see Sahlins, Peter, ‘Fictions of a Catholic France: the naturalization of foreigners, 1685–1787’, Representations, 47 (1994), pp. 85–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 100–2. For the naturalization in 1791 in Prussia of the Jewish banking family Itzig, together with a photograph of part of the original ‘patent of naturalization’, see Hilde Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein oder die Emanzipation: Ein Frauenleben an der Zeitenwende 1758–1818 (Frankfurt am Main, 1962), pp. 168–9.

³⁵ Derek Beales, ‘Joseph II and Josephism’, in Enlightenment and reform in eighteenth-century Europe (London and New York, 2005), pp. 300–1.

³⁶ See the informative remarks on this point by Dieter Grimm, ‘Das Verhältnis von politischer und privater Freiheit bei Zeiller’, in Walter Selb and Herbert Hofmeister, eds., Forschungsband Franz von Zeiller (1751–1828): Beiträge zur Gesetzgebungs- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Wiener rechtsgeschichtliche Arbeiten, xiii (Vienna, Graz, and Cologne, 1980), pp. 94–106, at p. 100.

³⁷ On this transformation in France, Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1992), p. 43.

³⁸ Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, p. 232.

³⁹ For the reform of conditions to admission to the Estates of Brabant in the Theresan era, see Mertens, ‘Nobles into Belgians’, pp. 37–54.

⁴⁰ The classic, though dated, work on the ‘restoration’ of the Estates' constitution is Victor Bibl, Die Restauration der niederösterr: Landesverfassung (Innsbruck, 1902). See also Bibl's, ‘Die niederösterreichischen Stände und die französische Revolution’, Jahrbuch des Vereins für Landeskunde in Niederösterreich, new series, 2 (1903), pp. 1–21Google Scholar. For the importance of the Estates during the Napoleonic occupation of Vienna in 1809, see Boguth, Walter ‘Die Okkupation Wiens und Niederösterreichs durch die Franzosen im Jahre 1809 und ihre Folgen für das Land’, Jahrbuch für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich, new series, 7 (1908), pp. 279–344Google Scholar, especially at pp. 283–4 and 319–28.

⁴¹ ‘Kayser Maximiliani 2di Confirmation über der zwayen Stendt verglichne Ordnung die Annembung der newen Landt leuth betr. de dato 10 Februarij 1572’, NÖLA, RA, A i, fos. 43–5.

⁴² Minutes of the assembly of ‘old families’ (alte Geschlechter) of the Estate of knights, 17 Jan. 1803, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20; Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 214–15.

⁴³ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 31 Oct. 1808, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, p. 240.

⁴⁴ Copy of an undated Court decree from 1811 found in the minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 23 Nov. 1811, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, pp. 325–6.

⁴⁵ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 23 Nov. 1811, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, p. 328.

⁴⁶ In 1819, the president of the Estates (Landmarschall) informed the central authorities that the knights had continued to implement their new statute. Count Joseph Dietrichstein to Grand Aulic Chancellor and Minister of the Interior Count Franz Saurau, draft, 7 June 1819, NÖLA, Landes-Registratur 1793–1904, F. 33, carton 1.

⁴⁷ Court decree from 30 Aug. 1810 printed in A. F. Pribram, ed. Urkunden und Akten zur Geschichte der Juden in Wien, part 1: Allgemeiner Teil, 1526–1847 (1849), 2 vols., Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Juden in Deutsch-Österreich, ed. Historische Kommission der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinde in Wien, viii (Vienna and Leipzig, 1918), ii, p. 187, no. 341. The records of the Lower Austrian government nevertheless show that this decree was not a consequence of the knightly statute. NÖLA, Niederösterreichische Regierung (NR), H 21, vol. 13 (Index in Judensachen 1808–11), Normalien, p. 1111.

⁴⁸ A copy of that or a similar decree is not found in the systematic collection of Court decrees directed to and assembled by the Estates on a yearly basis, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 618.

⁴⁹ Johann Baptist Witting, ed., J. Siebmacher's grosses und allgemeines Wappenbuch, iv, part 4: Niederösterreichischer Adel, part 2 (Nuremberg, 1918), p. 186.

⁵⁰ ‘Völlige Landt Tafel oder Haübt Matricül des ganzen Adels alß Fürsten, Grafen, Herren, und Ritterstandts Persohnen, oder Landtleuthen’ (seventeenth century), NÖLA, HA, Lade iv, no. 1.

⁵¹ In the last quarter of the seventeenth century, Sprinzenstein documentation passed to the descendants of Ferdinand Maximilian through his daughter. It is found in NÖLA, Lamberg papers, cartons 118–39. A ‘Kurzes Verzeichnus des R: Reichs Freyherrn von Sprinzenstein von hundert Jahre hero dem hochlöblichen Hauß Österreich und sonderlich deren Römischen Kayßern und Römischen Reichs trew erwißene Dienst’ (second quarter of the seventeenth century) refers to Paul Ritz as ‘Paul Freiherr von Sprinzenstein’ and does not mention either his having been a convert or his having been the imperial physician. Ibid., carton 120, no. 1460.

⁵² Count Johann Secundt Sprinzenstein to Count Ferdinand Maximilian Sprinzenstein, Lichtenau in Upper Austria, 12 Feb. 1668, NÖLA, Lamberg papers, carton 120, no. 1460. Descent from the Florentine patriciate was the version of the family history common in the nineteenth century. See Constant von Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, xxxvi (Vienna, 1878), p. 280.

⁵³ The provision allowing noble Protestants membership in the Estates found in Gustav Frank, Das Toleranz-Patent Kaiser Joseph II: Urkundliche Geschichte seiner Entstehung und seiner Folgen (Vienna, 1881), p. 40.

⁵⁴ In Galicia, Jews had enjoyed the right to belong to civic corporations before the Polish partitions. Horst Glassl, Das österreichische Einrichtungswerk in Galizien (1772–1790), Veröffentlichungen des Osteuropa-Institutes München, series Geschichte, ed. Georg Stadtmüller, xli (Wiesbaden, 1975), p. 192; Josef Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II., Schriftenreihe des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte der Universität Tel-Aviv, ix (Gerlingen, 1985), pp. 448–9. For an overview of Josephian legislation regarding Jews in Galicia, which differed considerably from that for Jews in the imperial capital, see Wolfgang Häusler, Das galizische Judentum in der Habsburgermonarchie im Lichte der zeitgenössischen Publizistik und Reiseliteratur von 1772–1848 (Vienna, 1979), pp. 33–45. Joseph granted the Jews of Trieste the right to be elected to the Exchange (Borsa), which gave them important political rights. Lois C. Dubin, The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and Enlightenment culture (Stanford, 1999), pp. 90–1. For the possibilities of civic rights for Jews in Prussia and other German states, see Jacob Toury, ‘Der Eintritt der Juden ins deutsche Bürgertum’, in Hans Liebeschütz and Arnold Paucker, eds., Das Judentum in der deutschen Umwelt 1800–1850, Schriftenreihe wissenschaftlicher Abhandlungen des Leo Baeck Instituts, xxxv (Tübingen, 1977), pp. 139–242, at pp. 158–9.

⁵⁵ For Joseph II as despot, see Derek Beales, ‘Was Joseph II an enlightened despot?’, in Enlightenment and reform in eighteenth-century Europe, pp. 262–86.

⁵⁶ Data on Wetzlar's conversion found in Anna L. Staudacher's useful compilation, Jüdische Konvertiten in Wien, 1782–1868, part 2 (Frankfurt am Main, 2002), p. 538. By failing to consult the minutes of curial sessions, the authors of two Viennese dissertations about admissions to the lords and knights offer no meaningful treatment of the circumstances surrounding Wetzlar's applications. Eva Susanne Knoll, ‘Der niederösterreichische Herrenstand von 1740–1848’ (phil. Diss., Vienna, 1966), pp. 248–49 and Silvia Sochor, ‘Der niederösterreichische Ritterstand 1711–1780’ (phil. Diss., University of Vienna, 1980), pp. 261–3. The controversy provoked by Wetzlar's admission to the Estates also not discussed in Klaus Edel, Karl Abraham Wetzlar Freiherr von Plankenstern, 1715(16)–1799 (Vienna, 1975).

⁵⁷ Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, p. 221.

⁵⁸ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of lords, 13 Mar. 1778, NÖLA, HA, Herrenstandsbücher, no. 3, pp. 64–7.

⁵⁹ Some of the empress's clumsier attempts to influence elections to Estates' offices in the Estates' curiae failed to produce the desired results. Examples found in minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of lords, 16 and 18 Mar. 1763, NÖLA, HA, Lade XXIIa, volume for 1745–64, pp. 221–43; minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 11 July 1770, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 15; minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of lords, 5 May 1773, NÖLA, HA, Herrenstandsbücher, no. 2, pp. 83–6; minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of prelates, 30 Oct. 1776, NÖLA, Prälatenstandsarchiv, Handschrift 4.

⁶⁰ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 22 Apr. 1778, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 16, pp. 157–8. Maria Theresa's intervention is documented in a letter from Count Pergen to the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 20 Apr. 1778, NÖLA, RA, Aufnahme der Mitglieder, carton 28, folder Carl Abraham Wetzlar Freiherr von Plankenstern.

⁶¹ Minutes of the Lower Austrian diet, 26 Oct. 1778, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 97, fo. 45r.

⁶² Minutes of the Lower Austrian diet, 25 Oct. 1779, 17 Mar. 1780, 22 Oct. 1781, and 12 Apr. 1782, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 97. Franz Freiherr von Prandau, ‘Ausführliche Beschreibung der Erbhuldigung welche dem Allerdurchlauchtigsten Großmächtigsten Herrn Herrn Leopold dem Zweyten König in Ungarn, Böhmen, Gallizien, und Lodomerien Erzherzoge zu Oesterreich von den vier Ständen des Erzherzogthums Oesterreich unter der Ens den 6ten April 1790 geleistet ward’, unpublished manuscript, 1790, NÖLA, Handschriften, no. 52, fos. 50v–55r.

⁶³ Report of Commissioner Prince Colloredo-Mannsfeld, draft, praes. 14 Apr. 1792, NÖLA, HA, Lade xvii, no. 12. Zinzendorf did not countersign this report and delivered his negative recommendation orally.

⁶⁴ Unpublished diary of Count Carl Zinzendorf, 14 Apr. 1792, Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv (Vienna). This entry not reproduced in Hans Wagner, ed., Wien von Maria Theresia bis zur Franzosenzeit: Aus den Tagebüchern des Grafen Karl von Zinzendorf (Vienna, 1972).

⁶⁵ Minutes of the Lower Austria Estate of lords, 14 Apr. 1792, NÖLA, HA, Lade xliv, carton 52.

⁶⁶ Zinzendorf's unanimous election to the post took place on 12 Apr. 1787 in a session of the Lower Austrian Estate of lords, NÖLA, HA, Herrenstandsbücher, no. 3, pp. 169–72. For Zinzendorf's defence of noble privilege as advantageous to the monarchical state, see Mueller, The Styrian Estates, p. 172.

⁶⁷ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 27 Apr. 1808, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, p. 217.

⁶⁸ Doblhoff's cover letter to his ‘Gutachten in Folge des Beschlusses des Ausschusses des löbl. n.ö. alten Ritterstandes vom 18ten Dezember 1807’, NÖLA, RA, A i, fos. 295–6.

⁶⁹ Keeß' written opinion (Votum) on the new rules of admission, 22 Mar. 1808, NÖLA, RA, A i, fo. 284r.

⁷⁰ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 27 Apr. 1808, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20, pp. 216–17.

⁷¹ Mayenberg's written opinion (Votum) on the draft-rules of admission, 9 Mar. 1808, NÖLA, RA, A i, fos. 270v–271r.

⁷² Regarding the application for admission of one wealthy financier of non-Jewish background, Mayenberg expressed the fear that such people wanted to ‘destroy’ (vertilgen) the traditional landed nobility. Mayenberg's written opinion (Votum) on the application for admission of the Moldavian financier Theodor von Petrowitz-Armis, 7 July 1810, NÖLA, RA, Aufnahmeakten, C-36, folder Theodor von Petrowitz-Armis.

⁷³ Winkelbauer, Thomas, ‘Der Adel in Ober- und Niederösterreich in der frühen Zeit’, Opera Historica, 2 (1992), pp. 13–33Google Scholar, at p. 16.

⁷⁴ Zmora, Monarchy, aristocracy and the state, pp. 84–6.

⁷⁵ For that of the Estates of Moravia, see Christian Ritter d'Elvert, Die Desiderien der mährischen Stände vom Jahre 1790 und ihre Folgen (Brünn, 1864), p. 67 (§24).

⁷⁶ Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 220–2.

⁷⁷ Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, p. 176.

⁷⁸ A reference to this debate, which is interestingly not recorded in the minutes of the diet, found in a communication of the college of deputies to the Estate of lords, 30 Mar. 1808, recorded in the minutes of the Estate of lords, 13 May 1808, NÖLA, HA, Lade xliv, carton 54.

⁷⁹ For the expulsion, see David Kaufmann, Die letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien und Niederösterreich, ihre Vorgeschichte (1625–1670) und ihre Opfer (Vienna, 1889). More recently, Barbara Staudinger, ‘Die Zeit der Landjuden und der Wiener Judenstadt 1496–1670/71’, in Brugger et al., Geschichte der Juden in Österreich, pp. 229–37, at pp. 330–7.

⁸⁰ Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II., pp. 448–9. In Trieste, Jews had traditionally had the right to own landed property. That right had been confirmed both by Charles VI and Maria Theresa. Dubin, The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste, p. 46.

⁸¹ References to these decrees (from 19 Oct. 1781 and 16 Nov. 1786) found in Pribram, ed., Urkunden und Akten zur Geschichte der Juden in Wien, i, p. 554 (n. 1).

⁸² Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II., p. 529.

⁸³ For Trieste, Tullia Catalan, La comunità ebraica di Trieste (1781–1914): politica società e cultura (Trieste, 2000), p. 40. A reference to the civic rights granted by Francis to the Jews in the ‘Italian and Illyrian provinces’ found in a petition to the monarch from representatives of Vienna's ‘tolerated’ Jews, 26 Feb. 1818, Pribram, ed., Urkunden und Akten zur Geschichte der Juden in Wien, ii, p. 277 (no. 392).

⁸⁴ Ingrid Mittenzwei has documented the way in which Leopold II's restoration of the Lower Austrian Estates' constitution in 1790 conditioned the decisions of Francis II's Aulic Chancellery regarding Jewish ownership of property. Ingrid Mittenzwei, Zwischen Gestern und Morgen: Wiens frühe Bourgeoisie an der Wende vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert, Bürgertum in der Habsburgermonarchie, vii (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 1998), p. 94. For a harsh assessment of Francis's policy toward the Jews, see Ludwig Bato, Die Juden im alten Wien (Vienna, 1928), pp. 119–38. More balanced is G. Wolf, Geschichte der Juden in Wien (1156–1876) (Vienna, 1876), pp. 97ff, and more recently, Lind, ‘Juden in den habsburgischen Ländern, 1670–1848’, pp. 421–32. See also Robert S. Wistrich, The Jews of Vienna in the age of Franz Joseph (Oxford, 1989), p. 26. For a recent, positive reappraisal of Francis's approach to government, see David Laven, Venice and Venetia under the Habsburgs, 1815–1835 (Oxford and New York, 2002), pp. 24–5.

⁸⁵ Court decree, 24 Sept. 1789, reproduced in Joseph Kropatschek, Handbuch aller unter der Regierung des Kaisers Joseph des II. für die K. K. Erbländer ergangenen Verordnungen und Gesetze in einer sistematischen Verbindung, xvii (Vienna, 1790), pp. 78–9. The decree was published only in Lower Austria. The relevant circular has been printed in Pribram, ed., Urkunden und Akten zur Geschichte der Juden in Wien, i, pp. 553–4.

⁸⁶ For the business ventures of the Hönigs, see Hermann Freudenberger, Lost momentum: Austrian economic development, 1750s–1830s, Studien zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte und Wirtschaftspolitik, ed. Herbert Matis and Roman Sandgruber, viii (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 2003), pp. 181–3.

⁸⁷ Mittenzwei, Zwischen Gestern und Morgen, pp. 93–4.

⁸⁸ The author is grateful to Dr Johann Weißensteiner of the Diözesanarchiv (Vienna) for information on the ecclesiastical status of the estate of Velm in the late eighteenth century. See also Gerhard Winner, Die Klosteraufhebungen in Niederösterreich und Wien (Vienna and Munich, 1967), p. 99.

⁸⁹ There is yet no conclusive proof that any Jew with noble domains in France enjoyed the right of ecclesiastical presentation. For one alleged instance, see Théophile Malvezin, Histoire des juifs à Bordeaux (Bordeaux, 1875), p. 231. Another ennobled Jew in Bordeaux with a seigneury mentioned in Richard, Guy, ‘La noblesse commerçante à Bordeaux et à Nantes au XVIIIe siècle’, L'Information historique (1958), pp. 185–90 and 201, at p. 189Google Scholar. For Liefman Calmer (1711–84), who purchased a domain with a barony and two ecclesiastical benefices and whose daughter married a son of Carl Abraham Wetzlar, see Arthur Hertzberg, The French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York, London, and Philadelphia, 1968), p. 136. For the purchase of rural property around Bordeaux by wealthy Jews, see also Paul Butel, Les négociants bordelais: l'Europe et les îles au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974), pp. 335–8 and 352–3.

⁹⁰ A resolution of the ‘three Upper Estates’ (prelates, lords, and knights), 25 Sept. 1794, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 602, p. 116, finally ended the opposition.

⁹¹ Court decrees, 19 July 1790 and 30 May 1794, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, nos. 598 (p. 44) and 602 (pp. 39–40).

⁹² Minutes of the Lower Austrian diet, 31 July 1790, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 280.

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ For Carl Liechtenstein's relationship with the Arnsteins, see Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, pp. 215–22; and Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II., p. 520.

⁹⁵ Imperial resolution, 4 Apr. 1820, printed in Pribram, ed., Urkunden und Akten zur Geschichte der Juden in Wien, ii, p. 392 (no. 412).

⁹⁶ Petition of Baroness Eleonora Wetzlar to the United Aulic Chancellery, draft or copy from March 1807, NÖLA, NR, H, 1807, no. 16520. A similar case against the heirs of Hermann von Wertheimstein (d. 1812) found in ibid., 1812, no. 7715, and 1813, no. 13408.

⁹⁷ The chief opponent within the curia of the knights' anti-Semitic paragraph was, as we have seen, Joseph von Aichen, who was also vice-president of the tribunal. A reference to the decision of the tribunal, from 1808, found in a report of the Estates' syndic, Karl von Schreyber (‘Votum ad # 3031 l.J. 1817’), in NÖLA, Landes-Registratur 1793–1904, F. 8, carton 3. This same material documents the Estates' initiative in forcing the non-converted Hönigsbergs and their heirs to sell their parts of Velm, as well as the Court's repeated confirmation of the Estates' measures. This tribunal handled Hönigsberg's case because of his noble status. One of the rights enjoyed by ennobled Jews was the separate jurisdiction reserved to the nobility.

⁹⁸ Wilhelm Brauneder, Österreichische Verfassungsgeschichte (4th and rev. edn, Vienna, 1987), p. 103.

⁹⁹ Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, p. 286.

¹⁰⁰ There is a reference in a petition by the Bohemian-Jewish wholesaler, Simon Lämel, to Jews having been allowed to acquire houses in Prague. Lämel to Emperor Francis, Prague, 1 May 1801, NÖLA, NR, H, 1801, no. 10700.

¹⁰¹ Resolution of the Directorium in publico politicis et cameralibus, 4 July 1794, NÖLA, NR, H, 1794, no. 8768. For its own reasons, the cathedral chapter supported his acquisition of the property, as did the Lower Austrian government. Another part of Arnstein's garden lay under the feudal jurisdiction of the K. K. Staatsgüteradministration, which, on the basis of Joseph's decree of September 1789, entered Arnstein's name into the land register (Grundbuch) without waiting for further approval. As the name indicates, that office administered properties owned by the state, including those that had been taken from monasteries.

¹⁰² Resolution of the Aulic Chancellery from 18 Aug. 1799 on the report of the Lower Austrian government from 6 Aug. 1799, NÖLA, NR, H, 1799, no. 12914.

¹⁰³ Court decree, 12 June 1801, NÖLA, NR, H, 1804, no. 19116.

¹⁰⁴ Court decree (regarding Pereira), copy, 2 Jan. 1808, NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 616 (decree no. 31). Court decree (regarding Eskeles), 13 Aug. 1810, NÖLA, NR, H, 1810, no. 32413. For the Arnstein–Eskeles merchant-bank, see Freudenberger, Lost momentum, pp. 183–4.

¹⁰⁵ There is a reference to the Estates' protest from 19 May in the copy of the Court decree from 14 June 1808 found in NÖLA, Ständische Bücher, no. 616 (decree no. 127).

¹⁰⁶ Court decree (regarding Herz), copy, 8 June 1811, NÖLA, NR, H, 1811, no. 21846.

¹⁰⁷ Mentioned in his petition to Emperor Francis, praes. 25 Jan. 1803, NÖLA, NR, H, 1803, no. 13338.

¹⁰⁸ Nathan Arnstein had requested the ‘naturalization’ of his son-in-law. The sources make clear that by ‘naturalization’ he was referring to the bestowal of civic rights in Vienna. Report of the Lower Austrian government, draft, 13 Sept. 1808, NÖLA, NR, H, 1808, no. 4545. For the rejection, see the material in NÖLA, NR, H, 1809, no. 3801.

¹⁰⁹ Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, p. 273. A genealogy of the Pereiras from their emigration from Iberia to Holland and later to Vienna and information about their property ownership in J. P. Apon, Sparrenheuve: Geschiedinis van een Bloemendaalse Hofsteede (Bloemendaal, 1961), pp. 52 and 56–9. The author is grateful to Dr Frans Willem Lantink of the University of Utrecht for bringing this work to his attention.

¹¹⁰ Jews were able to acquire civic rights in old regime Amsterdam. The Batavian Republic did not distinguish them in any legal way from other Dutch. Robert Feenstra and Henk Klompmaker, ‘Le statut des étrangers aux Pays-Bas’, Recueils de la société Jean Bodin, 10, part 2 (1958), pp. 333–73, at pp. 350–1.

¹¹¹ Berghahn, Grenzen der Toleranz, pp. 263–94.

¹¹² A Court decree from 11 June 1814 directed the Lower Austrian provincial government to investigate the suspected Jewish acquisition of houses in Vienna mandatario nomine. NÖLA, NR, H, 1814, no. 17358.

¹¹³ The social backlash against Jewish salons in Berlin between 1803 and 1811 discussed in Hertz, Jewish high society, pp. 253, 259, and 269–70.

¹¹⁴ Mally, Anton Karl, ‘Der Begriff “österreichische Nation” seit dem Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Der Donauraum, 17 (1972), pp. 48–66, at pp. 52–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁵ The definition taken from Bell, The cult of the nation, p. 5.

¹¹⁶ Robin Okey, The Habsburg monarchy from Enlightenment to eclipse (New York, 2001), p. 70.

¹¹⁷ Robert, L'idée nationale autrichienne, p. 373. The full quotation reads: ‘Ainsi Hormayr espérait stimuler le patriotisme autrichien, infuser un sang nouveau à ce grand corps dont il voulait faire une nation.’ See also Ernst Bruckmüller, Nation Österreich: Sozialhistorische Aspekte ihrer Entwicklung, Studien zu Politik und Verwaltung, iv (Vienna, Cologne, and Graz, 1984), pp. 92–5.

¹¹⁸ C. A. Macartney, The house of Austria: the later phase, 1790–1918 (Edinburgh, 1978), p. 40. Also R. J. W. Evans, ‘Josephinism, “Austrianness”, and the revolution of 1848’, in Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms, eds., The Austrian Enlightenment and its aftermath, Austrian Studies, ii (Edinburgh, 1991), pp. 145–60, at p. 146.

¹¹⁹ Mayenberg's written opinion (Votum) on the draft-rules of admission, 9 Mar. 1808, NÖLA, RA, A 1, fo. 269v.

¹²⁰ The relevant passage reads: ‘[Ich] erlaube mir nur noch schließlich nur [sic!] den Antrag zu den entworfenen Aufnahmeregeln noch hinzuzufügen, dass der neu Aufzunehmende, wenigstens im vierten Grade, von väterlichen und mütterlichen jüdischen Voreltern entfernt sein solle.’ Mayenberg's written opinion (Votum) on the draft-rules of admission, 9 Mar. 1808, NÖLA, RA, A 1, fo. 271r.

¹²¹ Mayenberg's written opinion (Votum) on the draft-rules of admission, 9 Mar. 1808, NÖLA, RA, A 1, fos. 269v–270r.

¹²² The statute of admission for the Estates of Carinthia from 17 Feb. 1591 found in Kärntner Landesarchiv, Klagenfurt, Ständisches Archiv i, Schachtel 445, Fasz. 2, fos. 13–20.

¹²³ The statute of admissions for Carniola from 16 Jan. 1624 in Arhiv Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana, Deželni stanovi zu Kranjsko, Registratur i, carton 2, folder ‘Statutum wie es mit der Aufnahme neuer Landleute gehalten werden soll.’

¹²⁴ The Carinthian exclusion of Hungarians and Italians has mistakenly been interpreted as a requirement for being ‘German-speaking’. Armin A. Wallas, Stände und Staat in Innerösterreich im 18. Jahrhundert: Die Auseinandersetzung um die Gerichts- und Verwaltungsorganisation zwischen den Kärntner Landständen und der zentralistischen Reformpolitik Wiens, Studien und Quellen zur Geschichte des Alpen-Adria-Raums, i (Klagenfurt, 1986), p. 21.

¹²⁵ Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 211–14.

¹²⁶ The wording of the statute of 1920 reproduced in Malinowski, Vom König zum Führer, p. 337. See also Kleine, Georg H., ‘Adelsgenossenschaft und Nationalsozialismus’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 26 (1978), pp. 100–41Google Scholar, especially at pp. 110 and 121.

¹²⁷ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 27 Apr. 1808, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 20.

¹²⁸ Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, ‘Assimilierung und rassischer Antisemitismus: Die iberischen und die deutschen Modelle’, in idem, Ein Feld in Anatot: Versuche über jüdische Geschichte, translated from the English by Wolfgang Heuss and Bruni Röhm, Kleine kulturwissenschaftliche Bibliothek, xliv (Berlin, 1993), pp. 53–80.

¹²⁹ Hering Torres, Rassismus in der Vormoderne, pp. 217–50.

¹³⁰ Ibid., p. 248.

¹³¹ Quotation taken from ibid., p. 217.

¹³² For the now forgotten Meiners at Göttingen, see Susanne Zantop, ‘The beautiful, the ugly, and the German: race, gender, and nationality in eighteenth-century anthropological discourse’, in Patricia Herminghouse and Magda Mueller, eds., Gender and Germanness: cultural productions of nation, Modern German Studies, iv (Providence and Oxford, 1997), pp. 21–35.

¹³³ For instance, see his report from 27 Feb. 1819 on the application for admission of Gottlieb Friedrich von Borsch (†1836) in NÖLA, RA, Aufnahmeakten, C-27, folder Borsch.

¹³⁴ On the little explored practice of admitting aristocratic clients to the Estates, see Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 203–4.

¹³⁵ Documentation relative to the admission of the Lakenbachers to the Styrian Estates found in Steiermärkisches Landesarchiv, Graz (StLA), Landschaftsarchiv Medium (Laa. A. Medium), i A/g 7394/1826. A reference to Saurau's patronage of the Lakenbachers' admission to the Estates, which later became controversial for other reasons, found in a debate in the Styrian diet. Minutes of the Styrian diet, 28 Apr. 1840, SLA, Laa. A. Medium, Nachträge, carton 40, volume for 1838–46, fo. 50v. On the grounds for the controversy, which had nothing to do with Jewish ancestry, see Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 235–6.

¹³⁶ A year before Joelson's ennoblement, Metternich had recommended the admission of his son into the diplomatic service. Report by Metternich to Emperor Francis, 21 Sept. 1816, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Vienna (HHStA), StK, Vorträge, carton 204. For Metternich's relations with Jewish nobles and for Austria's favourable policy towards Jewish issues at the Congress of Vienna, see Salo Baron, Die Judenfrage auf dem Wiener Kongreß (Vienna and Berlin, 1920), pp. 78–79 and 130.

¹³⁷ Minutes of the Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 28 Apr. 1827, NÖLA, RA, Handschrift 21, p. 267.

¹³⁸ Löwenthal's petition for admission to the Estate of knights, 20 Sept. 1827, NÖLA, RA, Aufnahmeakten, C-39, folder Löwenthal.

¹³⁹ Report of the standing committee (Ausschuss) of the Estate of knights, 22 May 1834, NÖLA, RA, Aufnahmeakten, C-39, folder Liebenberg.

¹⁴⁰ Zeugnis der Stadthauptmannschaft Wien, 27 Aug. 1816, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv, Vienna (AVA), Adelsakte Ritter von Henikstein (1812), fo. 13. The four such awards in Bohemia (all made by Emperor Francis) mentioned in Hanns Jäger-Sunstenau, ‘Die geadelten Judenfamilien im vormärzlichen Wien’ (phil. Diss., Vienna, 1950), p. 94.

¹⁴¹ Bohemian (Estates') provincial executive committee (Böhmischer Landesausschuss) to Bohemian governor's office (Böhmisches Gubernium), Prague, 26 Sept. 1812, AVA, Adelsakte Ritter von Henikstein (1812), fo. 7.

¹⁴² Francis's permission for the entail mentioned in the report (Vortrag) of the United Aulic Chancellery, 23 May 1833, AVA, Adelsakte Jacob Joseph Ritter von Löwenthal (1833).

¹⁴³ In the detailed genealogy he supplied at the time of his application for admission to the Styrian Estates (23 Mar. 1843), Franck did not mention the Henikstein connection. SLA, Laa. A. Medium, i A/g 3197/1843. Franck's election as a member of the executive committee occurred in a meeting of the diet on 28 Apr. 1846, SLA, Laa. A. Medium, Nachträge, carton 40, volume for 1838–46, fos. 248v–249r.

¹⁴⁴ Estate of lords to Estate of knights, 6 Mar. 1809, NÖLA, RA, A i, fo. 312r.

¹⁴⁵ Report of the two lords' commissioners (Count Joachim Egon Fürstenberg and Count Julius Veterani) recommending Pereira's admission, 18 Jan. 1815, NÖLA, HA, Aufnahmeakten, B-31.

¹⁴⁶ See Godsey, ‘Adelsautonomie, Konfession und Nation’, pp. 217–18.

¹⁴⁷ Early contemporary commentary on the prominent role in the Lower Austrian Estates assumed by the ‘second nobility’ found in the unpublished diary of Countess Marie Sidonie Chotek, née Countess Clary-Aldringen (wife of an aulic chancellor under Joseph II), from 19 Jan. 1793, Státní oblastní archiv v Litoměřicích pobočka Dĕčín (SOA Dĕčín), Czech Republic, Clary-Aldringen papers, carton 110, volume for 8 Apr. 1792–18 Feb. 1793, pp. 146–7.

¹⁴⁸ Godsey, William D. Jr, ‘“La société était au fond légitimiste”: émigrés, aristocracy, and the Court at Vienna, 1789–1848’, European History Quarterly, 35 (2005), pp. 63–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁹ This rumour mentioned in Elector Max Franz of Cologne to Baron August Schall, Frankfurt am Main, 14 Aug. 1798, HHStA, Hausarchiv, Familienkorrespondenz A, carton 51. The rumour concerned Countess Clary-Aldringen, née Baroness Wetzlar-Plankenstern. The author is grateful to Dr Rita Steblin for bringing this letter to his attention.

¹⁵⁰ Two nearly contemporary sources document Countess Bubna-Arenfeld's attendance at the Milanese Court: Vortrag by Archduke Rainer, 10 June 1833, HHStA, Minister-Kolowrat Akten, 1833, carton 87, no. 1790; and Prince Rudolph Colloredo-Mannsfeld [grand master of the (Viennese) Court] to Prince Franz Joseph Dietrichstein, 29 Dec. 1834, Moravský zemský archiv, Brno, Czech Republic (MZABrno), Dietrichstein papers, G 140, carton 577, no. 2446/22, fo. 36.

¹⁵¹ Hertz, Jewish high society, p. 211.

¹⁵² This marriage mentioned in Renate Komanovits, ‘Der Wirtschaftsadel unter Kaiser Franz II.(I.) in der Zeit von 1792 bis 1815’ (phil. Diss., Vienna, 1974), p. 256. See also Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, pp. 85–6.

¹⁵³ Count Joseph Desfours-Walderode to his father and stepmother, draft, Řepín, undated [late summer/fall 1799], SOA Dĕčín, Desfours-Walderode papers, carton 36.

¹⁵⁴ The private agreement of separation between Desfours-Walderode and his wife (dated Vienna, 29 July 1806), which was registered with the court of noble jurisdiction in Prague (Landrecht), found in ibid. In a letter dated Vienna, 12 June 1824, to an unnamed ‘Excellency’ (possibly Police-President Count Joseph Sedlnitzky), Count Michael Kaunitz recounted the failure of his marriage. AVA, Polizei-Hofstelle, 1824, Zahl 6269.

¹⁵⁵ Christian Steeb, Die Grafen von Fries: Eine Schweizer Familie und ihre wirtschaftspolitische und kulturhistorische Bedeutung für Österreich zwischen 1750 und 1830 (Bad Vöslau, 1999), pp. 245–8.

¹⁵⁶ Hertz, Jewish high society, p. 221.

¹⁵⁷ Spiel, Fanny von Arnstein, pp. 308–9.

¹⁵⁸ A list of the committee members found in ibid., p. 374.

¹⁵⁹ Cited in ibid., p. 352.

¹⁶⁰ The unpublished diary of Count Johann Nepomuk Chotek, 6 Feb. 1811, Státní oblastní archiv, Prague, Chotek papers, carton 149, p. 55, records the first social call of his wife, Isabella, née Countess Rotenhan (1774–1817) on Fanny Arnstein (‘Frau von Arnsteiner’) three days after the constituent meeting of the committee on which both served. Together, the Choteks paid another call on her later the same year (28 Nov., p. 560).

¹⁶¹ For the Arnstein, Eskeles, and Herz salons, see Baron, Die Judenfrage auf dem Wiener Kongreß, pp. 117–34.

¹⁶² August Fournier, Die Geheimpolizei auf dem Wiener Kongress (Vienna and Leipzig, 1913), p. 377; Niall Ferguson, The world's banker: the history of the house of Rothschild (London, 1998), pp. 167–72.

¹⁶³ Ferguson, The world's banker, p. 170. For a contemporary use of the term ‘parvenu’ in reference to the Rothschilds, see Gräfin Lulu Thürheim, Mein Leben: Erinnerungen aus Österreichs grosser Welt, ed. René van Rhyn, i (Munich, 1913), p. 229.

¹⁶⁴ A contemporary mentioned the presence of a ‘Fräulein Arenfeld’ at an Arnstein musical soirée. Unpublished diary of Count Johann Nepomuk Chotek, 6 Feb. 1811, p. 56, SOA Prague, Chotek papers. Both Chotek and a later chronicler, Count Eugen Czernin, recorded Arenfeld as unappealing in looks, though the latter also described her as ‘witty’. Unpublished diary of Count Eugen Czernin, 6 Oct. and 5 Dec. 1828, Státní oblastní archiv v Třeboni, pracovište Jindřichův Hradec (SOA Jindřichův Hradec), Czernin papers.

¹⁶⁵ At the time of her marriage, the father of Barth-Barthenheim's wife, Jacob Joseph von Löwenthal, made over to her the seigneury of Deinzendorf. Jacob Joseph von Löwenthal to Lower Austrian Estate of knights, 20 Sept. 1827, NÖLA, RA, Aufnahmeakten, C-39, folder Löwenthal. Barth-Barthenheim authored the principal treatise on the legal status of Lower Austrian Jews before 1848: Politische Verfassung der Israeliten im Lande unter der Enns, und insbesondere in der K. K. Haupt- und Residenzstadt Wien (Vienna, 1821).

¹⁶⁶ Edel, Karl Abraham Wetzlar, p. 228.

¹⁶⁷ The loans mentioned in the letters of Baron August Pereira-Arnstein to Joseph Simonfalvay (Amadé agent), Bad Vöslau, 8 Aug., 27 Sept., 12 Oct., and 20 Oct. 1844, Slovenský národný archív (Bratislava), Amadé-Üchtritz papers, carton 109, folder no. 2714.

¹⁶⁸ For the opportunities in the church still available to the pedigreed Austrian aristocracy after the secularizations of 1803, see William D. Godsey, Jr, ‘Die Säkularisationen um 1800 und die österreichische Hocharistokratie’, in Claudio Donati and Helmut Flachenecker, eds., Le secolarizzazioni nel Sacro Romano Impero e negli antichi Stati italiani: premesse, confronti, conseguenze, Annali dell'Istituto storico italo-germanico in Trento, xvi (Bologna and Berlin, 2005), pp. 253–68; and Godsey, William D. Jr, ‘Adelsversorgung in der Neuzeit: Die Wiederbelebung des Deutschen Ritterordens in der österreichischen Restauration’, Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 90 (2003), pp. 25–43Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁹ For the conservative turn at Court in Francis's later years, see Godsey, William D. Jr, ‘Oberstkämmerer Rudolph Graf Czernin (1757–1845) und die “Adelsrestauration” nach 1815 in Österreich’, Études danubiennes, 19 (2003), pp. 59–74Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ On this point, see Godsey, William D. Jr, ‘Quarterings and kinship: the social composition of the Habsburg aristocracy in the dualist era’, Journal of Modern History, 71 (1999), pp. 56–104, at pp. 67–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷¹ Comte F. de Sonis, ed., Lettres du Comte et de la comtesse de Ficquelmont à la comtesse Tiesenhausen (Paris, 1911), pp. 36–7. Another contemporary attributed the suicide to physical problems. Unpublished diary of Count Eugen Czernin, 7 Dec. 1842 and 24 Feb. 1844, SOA Jindřichův Hradec, Czernin papers.

¹⁷² Quotation from the unpublished diary of Count Eugen Czernin, 26 Jan. 1851, SOA Jindřichův Hradec, Czernin papers.

¹⁷³ Ferguson, The world's banker, pp. 540–50.

¹⁷⁴ Ibid., pp. 763–76.

¹⁷⁵ Freudenberger, Lost momentum, p. 188.

¹⁷⁶ These fears mentioned in a report to Prince Franz Joseph Dietrichstein by his agent Josef Artus, Brünn, 28 Sept. 1844, MZABrno, Dietrichstein papers, G 140, carton 577, folder 2446/7, fos. 51–2.